788 lines
16 KiB
Markdown
788 lines
16 KiB
Markdown
# Nga
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## Overview
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Nga is a minimalistic virtual machine emulating a dual stack computer
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with a simple instruction set.
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This is the specification and reference implementation of Nga. All code
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provided is in the C language.
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## Quick Overview of the VM Model
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**Memory** is a single, linear addressing space of signed integer
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values. Each location is called a **cell**. Addressing starts at zero
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and counts up.
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The VM does not expose any registers via the instruction set. This
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implementation makes use of an *instruction pointer* or **IP**, *data
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stack pointer* or **SP**, and *address stack pointer* or **RP**.
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Nga provides two LIFO stacks. The primary one is for data and the
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secondary one is used to hold return addresses for subroutine calls.
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Stack depths may vary depending on the underlying hardware and
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application needs.
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Instructions each take one cell. The **LIT** instruction requires a
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value in the following cell; it will push this value to the stack when
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executed.
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Instruction processing: the **IP** is incremented and the opcode at the
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current address is invoked. This process then repeats. Execution ends
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if the **END** instruction is run or end of memory is reached.
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Endian: the image files are stored in little endian format.
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I/O is not specified, but Nga does provide for adding this in a modular
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manner, using three instructions to enumerate, query, and interact
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with any devices provided.
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## Legal
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Nga derives from my earlier work on Ngaro. The following block lists
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the people who helped work on the C implementation.
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~~~
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/* Nga ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
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Copyright (c) 2008 - 2019, Charles Childers
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Copyright (c) 2009 - 2010, Luke Parrish
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Copyright (c) 2010, Marc Simpson
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Copyright (c) 2010, Jay Skeer
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Copyright (c) 2011, Kenneth Keating
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~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ */
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~~~
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## Boilerplate
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Since the code is in C, we have to include some headers.
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~~~
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#include <stdio.h>
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#include <stdint.h>
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#include <stdlib.h>
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#include <unistd.h>
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#include <string.h>
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#include <limits.h>
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~~~
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Nga uses a call table for dispatching instruction handlers. I define
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a type for this here, before starting the actual code.
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~~~
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typedef void (*Handler)(void);
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~~~
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## Configuration
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To make it easier to adapt Nga to a specific target, we keep some
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important constants grouped together at the start of the file.
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These defaults are targeted towards a 32-bit model, with several
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megabytes of RAM.
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For smaller targets, drop the IMAGE_SIZE considerably as that's the
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biggest pool of memory needed. Alternately, for use on machines with
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plenty of RAM, consider increasing these and reaping the benefits of
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a much larger memory and stack space.
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~~~
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#define CELL int32_t
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#define IMAGE_SIZE 524288 * 16
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#define ADDRESSES 2048
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#define STACK_DEPTH 512
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#define NUM_DEVICES 0
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~~~
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## Numbering The Instructions
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For this implementation an enum is used to name each of the
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instructions. For reference, here are the instructions and their
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corresponding values (in decimal):
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0 nop 7 jump 14 gt 21 and 28 io query
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1 lit <v> 8 call 15 fetch 22 or 29 io interact
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2 dup 9 ccall 16 store 23 xor
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3 drop 10 return 17 add 24 shift
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4 swap 11 eq 18 sub 25 zret
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5 push 12 neq 19 mul 26 end
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6 pop 13 lt 20 divmod 27 io enumerate
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~~~
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enum vm_opcode {
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VM_NOP, VM_LIT, VM_DUP, VM_DROP, VM_SWAP, VM_PUSH, VM_POP,
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VM_JUMP, VM_CALL, VM_CCALL, VM_RETURN, VM_EQ, VM_NEQ, VM_LT,
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VM_GT, VM_FETCH, VM_STORE, VM_ADD, VM_SUB, VM_MUL, VM_DIVMOD,
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VM_AND, VM_OR, VM_XOR, VM_SHIFT, VM_ZRET, VM_END, VM_IO_ENUM,
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VM_IO_QUERY, VM_IO_INTERACT
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};
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#define NUM_OPS VM_IO_INTERACT + 1
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~~~
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## VM State
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The VM state is held in a few global variables. (It'd be better to use
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a struct here, as Ngaro does, but this makes everything else a bit less
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readable.)
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Some things to note:
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The data stack (**data**), address stack (**address**), and memory
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(**memory**) are simple linear arrays.
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There are stack pointers (**sp** for **data** and **rp** for
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**address**), and an instruction pointer (**ip**). These are *not*
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exposed via the instruction set.
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~~~
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CELL sp, rp, ip;
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CELL data[STACK_DEPTH];
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CELL address[ADDRESSES];
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CELL memory[IMAGE_SIZE + 1];
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~~~
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For I/O devices, create the dispatch tables.
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~~~
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Handler IO_deviceHandlers[NUM_DEVICES + 1];
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Handler IO_queryHandlers[NUM_DEVICES + 1];
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~~~
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## A Little More Boilerplate
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Here we have a few bits of shorthand that'll be handled by the C
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preprocessor. These are used for readability purposes.
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~~~
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#define TOS data[sp]
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#define NOS data[sp-1]
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#define TORS address[rp]
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~~~
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## Loading an Image File
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A standard image file is a raw memory dump of signed integer values.
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(The size of these is determined by the value of CELL; Nga defaults
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to 32-bit)
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What we do here is:
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* attempt to open the file
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* use **fseek()** and **ftell()** to find the length of the file.
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* divide the length by the size of a cell to determine the number of cells
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* read the cells into memory (**image**)
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* return the size of the data read (in bytes)
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~~~
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CELL ngaLoadImage(char *imageFile) {
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FILE *fp;
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CELL imageSize;
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long fileLen;
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if ((fp = fopen(imageFile, "rb")) != NULL) {
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/* Determine length (in cells) */
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fseek(fp, 0, SEEK_END);
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fileLen = ftell(fp) / sizeof(CELL);
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rewind(fp);
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/* Read the file into memory */
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imageSize = fread(&memory, sizeof(CELL), fileLen, fp);
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fclose(fp);
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}
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else {
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printf("Unable to find the ngaImage!\n");
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exit(1);
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}
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return imageSize;
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}
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~~~
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## Preparations
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This function initializes all of the variables and fills the arrays
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with known values. Memory is filled with **VM_NOP** instructions; the
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others are populated with zeros.
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~~~
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void ngaPrepare() {
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ip = sp = rp = 0;
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for (ip = 0; ip < IMAGE_SIZE; ip++)
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memory[ip] = VM_NOP;
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for (ip = 0; ip < STACK_DEPTH; ip++)
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data[ip] = 0;
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for (ip = 0; ip < ADDRESSES; ip++)
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address[ip] = 0;
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}
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~~~
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## The Instructions
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I've chosen to implement each instruction as a separate function. This
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keeps them shorter, and lets me simplify the instruction processor
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later on.
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The **NOP** instruction does nothing.
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~~~
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void inst_nop() {
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}
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~~~
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**LIT** is a special case: it's followed by a value to push to the
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stack. This needs to increment the **sp** and **ip** and push the value
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at the incremented **ip** to the stack.
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~~~
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void inst_lit() {
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sp++;
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ip++;
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TOS = memory[ip];
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}
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~~~
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**DUP** duplicates the top item on the stack.
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~~~
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void inst_dup() {
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sp++;
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data[sp] = NOS;
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}
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~~~
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**DROP** removes the top item from the stack.
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~~~
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void inst_drop() {
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data[sp] = 0;
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if (--sp < 0)
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ip = IMAGE_SIZE;
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}
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~~~
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**SWAP** switches the top and second items on the stack.
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~~~
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void inst_swap() {
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CELL a;
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a = TOS;
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TOS = NOS;
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NOS = a;
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}
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~~~
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**PUSH** moves the top value from the data stack to the address stack.
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~~~
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void inst_push() {
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rp++;
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TORS = TOS;
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**POP** moves the top item on the address stack to the data stack.
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~~~
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void inst_pop() {
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sp++;
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TOS = TORS;
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rp--;
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}
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~~~
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**JUMP** moves execution to the address on the top of the stack.
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~~~
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void inst_jump() {
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ip = TOS - 1;
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**CALL** calls a subroutine at the address on the top of the stack.
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~~~
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void inst_call() {
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rp++;
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TORS = ip;
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ip = TOS - 1;
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**CCALL** is a conditional call. It takes two values: a flag and a
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pointer for an address to jump to if the flag is true.
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A false flag is zero. Any other value is true.
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Example:
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:t
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lit 100
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return
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:f
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lit 200
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return
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:main
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lit 1
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lit 2
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eq
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lit t
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ccall
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li f
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call
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end
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~~~
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void inst_ccall() {
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CELL a, b;
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a = TOS; inst_drop(); /* False */
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b = TOS; inst_drop(); /* Flag */
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if (b != 0) {
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rp++;
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TORS = ip;
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ip = a - 1;
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}
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}
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~~~
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**RETURN** ends a subroutine and returns flow to the instruction
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following the last **CALL** or **CCALL**.
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~~~
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void inst_return() {
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ip = TORS;
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rp--;
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}
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~~~
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**EQ** compares two values for equality and returns a flag.
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~~~
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void inst_eq() {
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NOS = (NOS == TOS) ? -1 : 0;
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**NEQ** compares two values for inequality and returns a flag.
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~~~
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void inst_neq() {
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NOS = (NOS != TOS) ? -1 : 0;
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**LT** compares two values for less than and returns a flag.
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~~~
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void inst_lt() {
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NOS = (NOS < TOS) ? -1 : 0;
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**GT** compares two values for greater than and returns a flag.
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~~~
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void inst_gt() {
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NOS = (NOS > TOS) ? -1 : 0;
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**FETCH** takes an address and returns the value stored there.
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This doubles as a means of introspection into the VM state. Negative
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addresses correspond to VM queries:
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| Address | Returns |
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| ------- | -------------------- |
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| -1 | Data stack depth |
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| -2 | Address stack depth |
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| -3 | Maximum Image Size |
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| -4 | Min value for a cell |
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| -5 | Max value for a cell |
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An implementation may use negative values below -100 for implementation
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specific inquiries.
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~~~
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void inst_fetch() {
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switch (TOS) {
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case -1: TOS = sp - 1; break;
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case -2: TOS = rp; break;
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case -3: TOS = IMAGE_SIZE; break;
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case -4: TOS = INT_MIN; break;
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case -5: TOS = INT_MAX; break;
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default: TOS = memory[TOS]; break;
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}
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}
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~~~
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**STORE** stores a value into an address.
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~~~
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void inst_store() {
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memory[TOS] = NOS;
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inst_drop();
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**ADD** adds two numbers together.
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~~~
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void inst_add() {
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NOS += TOS;
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**SUB** subtracts two numbers.
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~~~
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void inst_sub() {
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NOS -= TOS;
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**MUL** multiplies two numbers.
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~~~
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void inst_mul() {
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NOS *= TOS;
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**DIVMOD** divides and returns the quotient and remainder.
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If using a C99 or newer compiler, this should return a remainder
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with the same sign as the dividend. If using an older compiler,
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you may need to alter this to achieve the expected results.
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~~~
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void inst_divmod() {
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CELL a, b;
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a = TOS;
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b = NOS;
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TOS = b / a;
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NOS = b % a;
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}
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~~~
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**AND** performs a bitwise AND operation.
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+----------------+
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| Before | After |
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| ------ | ----- |
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| -1 | -1 |
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| -1 | |
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+----------------+
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+----------------+
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| Before | After |
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| ------ | ----- |
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| 0 | 0 |
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| -1 | |
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+----------------+
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+----------------+
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| Before | After |
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| ------ | ----- |
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| -1 | 0 |
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| 0 | |
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+----------------+
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~~~
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void inst_and() {
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NOS = TOS & NOS;
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**OR** performs a bitwise OR operation.
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+----------------+
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| Before | After |
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| ------ | ----- |
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| -1 | -1 |
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| -1 | |
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+----------------+
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+----------------+
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| Before | After |
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| ------ | ----- |
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| -1 | -1 |
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| 0 | |
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+----------------+
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+----------------+
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| Before | After |
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| ------ | ----- |
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| 0 | -1 |
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| -1 | |
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+----------------+
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+----------------+
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| Before | After |
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| ------ | ----- |
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| 0 | 0 |
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| 0 | |
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+----------------+
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~~~
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void inst_or() {
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NOS = TOS | NOS;
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**XOR** performs a bitwise XOR operation.
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+----------------+
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| Before | After |
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| ------ | ----- |
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| -1 | 0 |
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| -1 | |
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+----------------+
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+----------------+
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| Before | After |
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| ------ | ----- |
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| 0 | -1 |
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| -1 | |
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+----------------+
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+----------------+
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| Before | After |
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| ------ | ----- |
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| -1 | -1 |
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| 0 | |
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+----------------+
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+----------------+
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| Before | After |
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| ------ | ----- |
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| 0 | 0 |
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| 0 | |
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+----------------+
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~~~
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void inst_xor() {
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NOS = TOS ^ NOS;
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**SHIFT** performs a bitwise arithmetic SHIFT operation.
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This takes two values:
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xy
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And returns a single one:
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z
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If `y` is positive, this shifts right. If negative, it shifts
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left.
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~~~
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void inst_shift() {
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CELL y = TOS;
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CELL x = NOS;
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if (TOS < 0)
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NOS = NOS << (TOS * -1);
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else {
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if (x < 0 && y > 0)
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NOS = x >> y | ~(~0U >> y);
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else
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NOS = x >> y;
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}
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inst_drop();
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}
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~~~
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**ZRET** returns from a subroutine if the top item on the stack is
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zero. If not, it acts like a **NOP** instead.
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~~~
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void inst_zret() {
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if (TOS == 0) {
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inst_drop();
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ip = TORS;
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rp--;
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}
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}
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~~~
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**END** tells Nga that execution should end.
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~~~
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void inst_end() {
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ip = IMAGE_SIZE;
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}
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~~~
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**I/O ENUMERATE** pushes a value to the stack indicating the number
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of provided devices.
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~~~
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void inst_ie() {
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sp++;
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TOS = NUM_DEVICES;
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}
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~~~
|
|
|
|
**I/O QUERY** takes a value and returns two. The top stack item
|
|
is an identifer for the type of device attached. The second indicates
|
|
a device specific version number.
|
|
|
|
~~~
|
|
void inst_iq() {
|
|
CELL Device = TOS;
|
|
inst_drop();
|
|
IO_queryHandlers[Device]();
|
|
}
|
|
~~~
|
|
|
|
**I/O INTERACT** takes a value indicating the desired device and
|
|
performs an action with the device.
|
|
|
|
~~~
|
|
void inst_ii() {
|
|
CELL Device = TOS;
|
|
inst_drop();
|
|
IO_deviceHandlers[Device]();
|
|
}
|
|
~~~
|
|
|
|
## Instruction Handler
|
|
|
|
In the past I handled the instructions via a big switch. With Nga, I
|
|
changed this to use a jump table. This is significantly more concise
|
|
and makes maintenance easier overall.
|
|
|
|
So first up, the jump table itself. Just a list of pointers to the
|
|
instruction implementations, in the proper order.
|
|
|
|
~~~
|
|
Handler instructions[NUM_OPS] = {
|
|
inst_nop, inst_lit, inst_dup, inst_drop, inst_swap, inst_push, inst_pop,
|
|
inst_jump, inst_call, inst_ccall, inst_return, inst_eq, inst_neq, inst_lt,
|
|
inst_gt, inst_fetch, inst_store, inst_add, inst_sub, inst_mul, inst_divmod,
|
|
inst_and, inst_or, inst_xor, inst_shift, inst_zret, inst_end, inst_ie,
|
|
inst_iq, inst_ii
|
|
};
|
|
~~~
|
|
|
|
And now **ngaProcessOpcode()** which calls the functions in the jump
|
|
table.
|
|
|
|
~~~
|
|
void ngaProcessOpcode(CELL opcode) {
|
|
instructions[opcode]();
|
|
}
|
|
~~~
|
|
|
|
Nga also allows (optionally) support for packing multiple instructions
|
|
per cell. This has benefits on memory constained targets as four
|
|
instructions can be packed into each cell, reducing memory usage
|
|
significantly.
|
|
|
|
Consider:
|
|
|
|
lit 100
|
|
lit 200
|
|
add
|
|
|
|
In a standard image this will be five cells. One for each instruction
|
|
and one for each data item. With packed instructions it would be three
|
|
cells: one for each four instructions (we only have three here, so the
|
|
unused one is a simple NOP) and one for each data item.
|
|
|
|
This implementation provides two functions for handling these. The
|
|
first takes a packed instruction and validates each instruction as
|
|
being valid. The second will process each of the stored opcodes.
|
|
|
|
Note for those using this: packing should stop when instructions that
|
|
modify the IP for flow control are used. These are:
|
|
|
|
* JUMP
|
|
* CCALL
|
|
* CALL
|
|
* RET
|
|
* ZRET
|
|
|
|
Nga will not stop processing code, but execution flow errors may arise
|
|
if the packing tool does not take these into account.
|
|
|
|
~~~
|
|
int ngaValidatePackedOpcodes(CELL opcode) {
|
|
CELL raw = opcode;
|
|
CELL current;
|
|
int valid = -1;
|
|
int i;
|
|
for (i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
|
|
current = raw & 0xFF;
|
|
if (!(current >= 0 && current <= 29))
|
|
valid = 0;
|
|
raw = raw >> 8;
|
|
}
|
|
return valid;
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
void ngaProcessPackedOpcodes(CELL opcode) {
|
|
CELL raw = opcode;
|
|
int i;
|
|
for (i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
|
|
ngaProcessOpcode(raw & 0xFF);
|
|
raw = raw >> 8;
|
|
}
|
|
}
|
|
~~~
|
|
|
|
Nga is intended to be used as a part of a larger environment adding
|
|
host-specific I/O and functionality. For testing purposes, it is
|
|
possible to run non-interactive images by building defining STANDALONE
|
|
when compiling this source. A sample `main()` is included below showing
|
|
how to use this.
|
|
|
|
~~~
|
|
#ifdef STANDALONE
|
|
int main(int argc, char **argv) {
|
|
ngaPrepare();
|
|
if (argc == 2)
|
|
ngaLoadImage(argv[1]);
|
|
else
|
|
ngaLoadImage("ngaImage");
|
|
|
|
CELL opcode, i;
|
|
|
|
ip = 0;
|
|
while (ip < IMAGE_SIZE) {
|
|
opcode = memory[ip];
|
|
if (ngaValidatePackedOpcodes(opcode) != 0) {
|
|
ngaProcessPackedOpcodes(opcode);
|
|
} else if (opcode >= 0 && opcode < 27) {
|
|
ngaProcessOpcode(opcode);
|
|
} else {
|
|
printf("Invalid instruction!\n");
|
|
printf("At %d, opcode %d\n", ip, opcode);
|
|
exit(1);
|
|
}
|
|
ip++;
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
for (i = 1; i <= sp; i++)
|
|
printf("%d ", data[i]);
|
|
printf("\n");
|
|
exit(0);
|
|
}
|
|
#endif
|