# RETRO: a Modern, Pragmatic Forth Welcome to RETRO, my personal take on the Forth language. This is a modern system primarily targetting desktop, mobile, and servers, though it can also be used on some larger (ARM, MIPS32) embedded systems. The language is Forth. It is untyped, uses a stack to pass data between functions called words, and a dictionary which tracks the word names and data structures. But it's not a traditional Forth. RETRO draws influences from many sources and takes a unique approach to the language. RETRO has a large vocabulary of words. Keeping a copy of the Glossary on hand is highly recommended as you learn to use RETRO. This book will hopefully help you develop a better understanding of RETRO and how it works. # Building RETRO on BSD ## Requirements - c compiler (tested: clang, tcc, gcc) - make - standard unix shell ## Process Run `make`. This will build the toolchain and then the main `retro` executable. ## Executables In the `bin/` directory: retro retro-unu retro-muri retro-extend retro-embedimage # Building RETRO on Linux ## Requirements - c compiler (tested: clang, tcc, gcc) - make - standard unix shell ## Process Run `make -f Makefile.linux`. This will build the toolchain and then the main `retro` executable. ## Executables In the `bin/` directory: retro retro-unu retro-muri retro-extend retro-embedimage # Building RETRO on macOS ## Requirements - c compiler (tested: clang, tcc, gcc) - make - standard unix shell ## Process Run `make`. This will build the toolchain and then the main `retro` executable. ## Executables In the `bin/` directory: retro retro-unu retro-muri retro-extend retro-embedimage # Building RETRO on Windows It is possible to build RETRO on Windows, though a few of the extensions are not supported: - no `unix:` words - no `gopher:` words ## Process This is currently more difficult than on a Unix host. If you have Windows 10 and WSL, it may be better to build under that (using the Linux instructions). ### Setup TCC Go to http://download.savannah.gnu.org/releases/tinycc/ Download the *winapi-full* and *tcc-xxxx-bin* packages for your system. Decompress them, copy the headers from the winapi package into the tcc directory. ### Prepare Source You'll need to comment out (or remove) some things before RETRO will build. In *rre.c*: - remove includes for unistd.h, sys/sockets.h, netinet/in.h netdb.h, errno.h, sys/wait.h, signal.h - remove the #define USE_TERMIOS line - change the #define NUM_DEVICES to 6 - remove io_unix_handler and io_gopher_handler from IO_deviceHandlers - remove io_unix_query and io_gopher_query from IO_queryHandlers In *image-functions.c*: - remove includes for unistd.h In *image-functions.h*: - remove includes for unistd.h In *io\io_filesystem.c*: - remove includes for unistd.h In *io\io_floatingpoint.c*: - remove includes for unistd.h ### Build \path\to\tcc rre.c image-functions.c io\io_filesystem.c io\io_floatingpoint.c -o retro.exe # Starting RETRO on BSD RETRO can be run for scripting or interactive use. To start it interactively, run: `retro -i` or `retro -c`. For a summary of the full command line arguments available: Scripting Usage: retro filename [script arguments...] Interactive Usage: retro [-h] [-i] [-c] [-s] [-f filename] [-t] -h Display this help text -i Interactive mode (line buffered) -c Interactive mode (character buffered) -s Suppress the 'ok' prompt and keyboard echo in interactive mode -f filename Run the contents of the specified file -t Run tests (in ``` blocks) in any loaded files # Starting RETRO on Linux RETRO can be run for scripting or interactive use. To start it interactively, run: `retro -i` or `retro -c`. For a summary of the full command line arguments available: Scripting Usage: retro filename [script arguments...] Interactive Usage: retro [-h] [-i] [-c] [-s] [-f filename] [-t] -h Display this help text -i Interactive mode (line buffered) -c Interactive mode (character buffered) -s Suppress the 'ok' prompt and keyboard echo in interactive mode -f filename Run the contents of the specified file -t Run tests (in ``` blocks) in any loaded files # Starting RETRO on macOS RETRO can be run for scripting or interactive use. To start it interactively, run: `retro -i` or `retro -c`. For a summary of the full command line arguments available: Scripting Usage: retro filename [script arguments...] Interactive Usage: retro [-h] [-i] [-c] [-s] [-f filename] [-t] -h Display this help text -i Interactive mode (line buffered) -c Interactive mode (character buffered) -s Suppress the 'ok' prompt and keyboard echo in interactive mode -f filename Run the contents of the specified file -t Run tests (in ``` blocks) in any loaded files # Starting RETRO on Windows Double click the `retro.exe` file. # Basic Interactions Start RETRO in interactive mode: ``` retro -i ``` You should see something similar to this: RETRO 12 (rx-2019.6) 8388608 MAX, TIB @ 1025, Heap @ 9374 Ok At this point you are at the *listener*, which reads and processes your input. You are now set to begin exploring RETRO. To exit, run `bye`: ``` bye ``` # Syntax RETRO has more syntax than a traditional Forth due to ideas borrowed from ColorForth and some design decisions. This has some useful traits, and helps to make the language more consistent. ## Tokens Input is divided into a series of whitespace delimited tokens. Each of these is then processed individually. There are no parsing words in RETRO. Tokens may have a single character *prefix*, which RETRO will use to decide how to process the token. ## Prefixes Prefixes are single characters added to the start of a token to guide the compiler. The use of these is a major way in which RETRO differs from traditional Forth. When a token is passed to `interpret`, RETRO first takes the intitial character and looks to see if there is a word that matches this. If so, it will pass the rest of the token to that word to handle. In a traditional Forth, the interpret process is something like: get token is token in the dictionary? yes: is it immediate? yes: call the word. no: are we interpreting? yes: call the word no: compile a call to the word no: is it a number? yes: are we interpreting? yes: push the number to the stack no: compile the number as a literal no: report an error ("not found") In RETRO, the interpret process is basically: get token does the first character match a `prefix:` word? yes: pass the token to the prefix handler no: is token a word in the dictionary? yes: push the XT to the stack and call the class handler no: report an error ("not found") All of the actual logic for how to deal with tokens is moved to the individual prefix handlers, and the logic for handling words is moved to word class handlers. This means that prefixes are used for a lot of things. Numbers? Handled by a `#` prefix. Strings? Use the `'` prefix. Comments? Use `(`. Making a new word? Use the `:` prefix. The major prefixes are: | Prefix | Used For | | ------ | ----------------------------- | | @ | Fetch from variable | | ! | Store into variable | | & | Pointer to named item | | # | Numbers | | $ | ASCII characters | | ' | Strings | | ( | Comments | | : | Define a word | The individual prefixes will be covered in more detail in the later chapters on working with different data types. ## Word Classes Word classes are words which take a pointer and do something with it. # A Quick Tutorial Programming in RETRO is all about creating words to solve the problem at hand. Words operate on data, which can be kept in memory or on the stack. Let's look at this by solving a small problem: writing a word to determine if a string is a palindrome. A palindrome is a phrase which reads the same backward and forward. We first need a string to look at. Starting with something easy: ``` 'anna ``` Looking in the Glossary, there is a `s:reverse` word for reversing a string. We can find `dup` to copy a value, and `s:eq?` to compare two strings. So testing: ``` 'anna dup s:reverse s:eq? ``` This yields -1 (`TRUE`) as expected. So we can easily name it: ``` :palindrome dup s:reverse s:eq? ; ``` Naming uses the `:` prefix to add a new word to the dictionary. The words that make up the definition are then placed, with a final word (`;`) ending the definition. We can then use this: ``` 'anna palindrome? ``` Once defined there is no difference between our new word and any of the words already provided by the RETRO system. # Using The Glossary The Glossary is a valuable resource. It provides information on the RETRO words. ## Example Entry f:+ Data: - Addr: - Float: FF-F Add two floating point numbers, returning the result. Class: class:word | Namespace: f | Interface Layer: rre Example #1: .3.1 .22 f:+ ## Reading The Entry An entry starts with the word name. This is followed by the stack effect for each stack. All RETRO systems have Data and Address stacks, some also include a floating point stack). The stack effect diagrams are followed by a short description of the word. After the description is a line providing some useful data. This includes the class handler, namespace prefix, and the interface layer that provides the word. Words in all systems will be listed as `all`. Some words (like the `pb:` words) are only on specific systems like iOS. These can be identified by looking at the interface layer field. At the end of the entry may be an example or two. ## Access Online The latest Glossary can be browsed at http://forthworks.com:9999 or gopher://forthworks.com:9999 # Programming Techniques The upcoming chapters provide helpful information on using RETRO with different types of data and hints on how to solve problems in a way consistent with the RETRO system. # Unu: Simple, Literate Source Files RETRO is written in a literate style. Most of the sources are in a format called Unu. This allows easy mixing of commentary and code blocks, making it simple to document the code. As an example, # Determine The Average Word Name Length To determine the average length of a word name two values are needed. First, the total length of all names in the Dictionary: ~~~ #0 [ d:name s:length + ] d:for-each ~~~ And then the number of words in the Dictionary: ~~~ #0 [ drop n:inc ] d:for-each ~~~ With these, a simple division is all that's left. ~~~ / ~~~ Finally, display the results: ~~~ 'Average_name_length:_%n\n s:format s:put ~~~ This illustrates the format. Only code in the fenced blocks (between \~~~ pairs) get extracted and run. (Note: this only applies to *source files*; fences are not used when entering code interactively). # Naming Conventions Word names in RETRO generally follow the following conventions. ## Case Word names are lowercase, with a dash (-) for compound names. Variables use TitleCase, with no dash between compound names. Constants are UPPERCASE, with a dash (-) for compound names. ## Namespaces Words are grouped into broad namespaces by attaching a short prefix string to the start of a name. The common namespaces are: | Prefix | Contains | | ------- | ------------------------------------------------------ | | array: | Words operating on simple arrays | | ASCII: | ASCII character constants for control characters | | buffer: | Words for operating on a simple linear LIFO buffer | | c: | Words for operating on ASCII character data | | class: | Contains class handlers for words | | d: | Words operating on the Dictionary | | err: | Words for handling errors | | io: | General I/O words | | n: | Words operating on numeric data | | prefix: | Contains prefix handlers | | s: | Words operating on string data | | v: | Words operating on variables | | file: | File I/O words | | f: | Floating Point words | | gopher: | Gopher protocol words | | unix: | Unix system call words | # Stack Diagrams Most words in RETRO have a stack comment. These look like: (-) (nn-n) As with all comments, a stack comment begins with `(` and should end with a `)`. There are two parts to the comment. On the left side of the `-` is what the word *consumes*. On the right is what it *leaves*. RETRO uses a short notation, with one character per value taken or left. In general, the following symbols represent certain types of values. b, n, m, o, x, y, z are generic numeric values s represents a string v represents a variable p, a represent pointers q represents a quotation d represents a dictionary header f represents a `TRUE` or `FALSE` flag. In the case of something like `(xyz-m)`, RETRO expects z to be on the top of the stack, with y below it and x below the y value. And after execution, a single value (m) will be left on the stack. Words with no stack effect have a comment of (-) # Word Classes Word classes are one of the two elements at the heart of RETRO's interpreter. There are different types of words in a Forth system. At a minimum there are data words, regular words, and immediate words. There are numerous approaches to dealing with this. In RETRO I define special words which receive a pointer and decide how to deal with it. These are grouped into a `class:` namespace. ## How It Works When a word is found in the dictionary, RETRO will push a pointer to the definition (the `d:xt` field) to the stack and then call the word specified by the `d:class` field. The word called is responsible for processing the pointer passed to it. As a simple case, let's look at `immediate` words. These are words which will always be called when encountered. A common strategy is to have an immediacy bit which the interpreter will look at, but RETRO uses a class for this. The class is defined: ``` :class:immediate (a-) call ; ``` Or a normal word. These should be called at interpret time or compiled into definitions. The handler for this can look like: ``` :class:word (a-) compiling? [ compile:call ] [ call ] choose ; ``` ## Using Classes The ability to add new classes is useful. If I wanted to add a category of word that preserves an input value, I could do it with a class: ``` :class:duplicating (a-) compiling? [ &dup compile:call ] [ &dup dip ] choose class:word ; :duplicating &class:duplicating reclass ; :. n:put nl ; duplicating #100 . . . ``` # Using Combinators A combinator is a function that consumes functions as input. They are used heavily by the RETRO system. ## Types of Combinators Combinators are divided into three primary types: compositional, execution flow, and data flow. ### Compositional A compositional combinator takes elements from the stack and returns a new quote. `curry` takes a value and a quote and returns a new quote applying the specified quote to the specified value. As an example, ``` :acc (n-) here swap , [ dup v:inc fetch ] curry ; ``` This would create an accumulator function, which takes an initial value and returns a quote that will increase the accumulator by 1 each time it is invoked. It will also return the latest value. So: ``` #10 acc dup call n:put dup call n:put dup call n:put ``` ### Execution Flow Combinators of this type execute other functions. #### Fundamental `call` takes a quote and executes it immediately. ``` [ #1 n:put ] call &words call ``` #### Conditionals RETRO provides three primary combinators for use with conditional execution of quotes. These are `choose`, `if`, and `-if`. `choose` takes a flag and two quotes from the stack. If the flag is true, the first quote is executed. If false, the second quote is executed. ``` #-1 [ 'true s:put ] [ 'false s:put ] choose #0 [ 'true s:put ] [ 'false s:put ] choose ``` `if` takes a flag and one quote from the stack. If the flag is true, the quote is executed. If false, the quote is discarded. ``` #-1 [ 'true s:put ] if #0 [ 'true s:put ] if ``` `-if` takes a flag and one quote from the stack. If the flag is false, the quote is executed. If true, the quote is discarded. ``` #-1 [ 'false s:put ] -if #0 [ 'false s:put ] -if ``` RETRO also provides `case` and `s:case` for use when you have multiple values to check against. This is similar to a `switch` in C. `case` takes two numbers and a quote. The initial value is compared to the second one. If they match, the quote is executed. If false, the quote is discarded and the initial value is left on the stack. Additionally, if the first value was matched, `case` will exit the calling function, but if false, it returns to the calling function. `s:case` works the same way, but for strings instead of simple values. ``` :test (n-) #1 [ 'Yes s:put ] case #2 [ 'No s:put ] case drop 'No idea s:put ; ``` #### Looping Several combinators are available for handling various looping constructs. `while` takes a quote from the stack and executes it repeatedly as long as the quote returns a true flag on the stack. This flag must be well formed and equal -1 or 0. ``` #10 [ dup n:put sp n:dec dup 0 -eq? ] while ``` `times` takes a count and quote from the stack. The quote will be executed the number of times specified. No indexes are pushed to the stack. ``` #1 #10 [ dup n:put sp n:inc ] times drop ``` There is also a `times` variation that provides access to the loop index (via `I`) and parent loop indexes (via `J` and `K`). ``` #10 [ I n:put sp ] times ``` ### Data Flow These combinators exist to simplify stack usage in various circumstances. #### Preserving Preserving combinators execute code while preserving portions of the data stack. `dip` takes a value and a quote, moves the value off the main stack temporarily, executes the quote, and then restores the value. ``` #10 #20 [ n:inc ] dip ``` Would yield the following on the stack: ``` 11 20 ``` `sip` is similar to `dip`, but leaves a copy of the original value on the stack during execution of the quote. So: ``` #10 [ n:inc ] sip ``` Leaves us with: ``` 11 10 ``` #### Cleave Cleave combinators apply multiple quotations to a single value or set of values. `bi` takes a value and two quotes, it then applies each quote to a copy of the value. ``` #100 [ n:inc ] [ n:dec ] bi ``` `tri` takes a value and three quotes. It then applies each quote to a copy of the value. ``` #100 [ n:inc ] [ n:dec ] [ dup * ] tri ``` #### Spread Spread combinators apply multiple quotations to multiple values. The asterisk suffixed to these function names signifies that they are spread combinators. `bi*` takes two values and two quotes. It applies the first quote to the first value and the second quote to the second value. ``` #1 #2 [ n:inc ] [ #2 * ] bi* ``` `tri*` takes three values and three quotes, applying the first quote to the first value, the second quote to the second value, and the third quote to the third value. ``` #1 #2 #3 [ n:inc ] [ #2 * ] [ n:dec ] tri* ``` #### Apply Apply combinators apply a single quotation to multiple values. The @ sign suffixed to these function names signifies that they are apply combinators. `bi@` takes two values and a quote. It then applies the quote to each value. ``` #1 #2 [ n:inc ] bi@ ``` `tri@` takes three values and a quote. It then applies the quote to each value. ``` #1 #2 #3 [ n:inc ] tri@ ``` RETRO also provides `for-each` combinators for various data structures. The exact usage of these varies; consult the Glossary and relevant chapters for more details on these. # Working With Arrays RETRO offers a number of words for operating on statically sized arrays. ## Namespace The words operating on arrays are kept in an `array:` namespace. ## Creating Arrays The easiest way to create an array is to wrap the values in a `{` and `}` pair: ``` { #1 #2 #3 #4 } { 'this 'is 'an 'array 'of 'strings } { 'this 'is 'a 'mixed 'array #1 #2 #3 } ``` You can also make an array from a quotation which returns values and the number of values to store in the array: ``` [ #1 #2 #3 #3 ] array:counted-results [ #1 #2 #3 #3 ] array:make ``` ## Accessing Elements You can access a specific value with `array:nth` and `fetch` or `store`: ``` { #1 #2 #3 #4 } #3 array:nth fetch ``` ## Find The Length Use `array:length` to find the size of the array. ``` { #1 #2 #3 #4 } array:length ``` ## Duplicate Use `array:dup` to make a copy of an array: ``` { #1 #2 #3 #4 } array:dup ``` ## Filtering RETRO provides `array:filter` which extracts matching values from an array. This is used like: ``` { #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 } [ n:even? ] array:filter ``` The quote will be passed each value in the array and should return TRUE or FALSE. Values that lead to TRUE will be collected into a new array. ## Mapping `array:map` applies a quotation to each item in an array and constructs a new array from the returned values. Example: ``` { #1 #2 #3 } [ #10 * ] array:map ``` ## Reduce `array:reduce` takes an array, a starting value, and a quote. It executes the quote once for each item in the array, passing the item and the value to the quote. The quote should consume both and return a new value. ``` { #1 #2 #3 } #0 [ + ] array:reduce ``` ## Search RETRO provides `array:contains?` and `array:contains-string?` to search an array for a value (either a number or string) and return either TRUE or FALSE. ``` #100 { #1 #2 #3 } array:contains? 'test { 'abc 'def 'test 'ghi } array:contains-string? ``` # Working With a Buffer RETRO provides words for operating on a linear memory area. This can be useful in building strings or custom data structures. ## Namespace Words operating on the buffer are kept in the `buffer` namespace. # Working With Characters RETRO provides words for working with ASCII characters. ## Prefix Character constants are returned using the `$` prefix. ## Namespace Words operating on characters are in the `c:` namespace. ## Classification RETRO provides a number of words to determine if a character fits into predefined groups. The primary words for this are: * `c:consonant?` * `c:digit?` * `c:letter?` * `c:lowercase?` * `c:uppercase?` * `c:visible?` * `c:vowel?` * `c:whitespace?` There are also corresponding "not" forms: * `c:-consonant?` * `c:-digit?` * `c:-lowercase?` * `c:-uppercase?` * `c:-visible?` * `c:-vowel?` * `c:-whitespace?` All of these take a character and return either a `TRUE` or `FALSE` flag. ## Conversions A few words are provided to convert case. Each takes a character and returns the modified character. * `c:to-lower` * `c:to-number` * `c:to-upper` * `c:toggle-case` RETRO also has `c:to-string`, which takes a character and creates a new temporary string with the character. ## I/O Characters can be displayed using `c:put`. ``` $a c:put ``` With the default system on BSD, Linux, and macOS (and other Unix style hosts), `c:get` is provided to read input. This may be buffered, depending on the host. # Working With The Dictionary The Dictionary is a linked list containing the dictionary headers. ## Namespace Words operating on the dictionary are in the `d:` namespace. ## Variables `Dictionary` is a variable holding a pointer to the most recent header. ## Header Structure Each entry follows the following structure: Offset Contains ------ --------------------------- 0000 Link to Prior Header 0001 Link to XT 0002 Link to Class Handler 0003+ Word name (null terminated) RETRO provides words for accessing the fields in a portable manner. It's recommended to use these to allow for future revision of the header structure. ## Accessing Fields Given a pointer to a header, you can use `d:xt`, `d:class`, and `d:name` to access the address of each specific field. There is no `d:link`, as the link will always be the first field. ## Shortcuts For The Latest Header RETRO provides several words for operating on the most recent header. `d:last` returns a pointer to the latest header. `d:last` will give the contents of the `d:xt` field for the latest header. There are also `d:last` and `d:last`. ## Adding Headers Two words exist for making new headers. The easy one is `d:create`. This takes a string for the name and makes a new header with the class set to `class:data` and the XT field pointing to `here`. Example: ``` 'Base d:create ``` The other is `d:add-header`. This takes a string, a pointer to the class handler, and a pointer for the XT field and builds a new header using these. Example: ``` 'Base &class:data #10000 d:add-header ``` ## Searching RETRO provides two words for searching the dictionary. `d:lookup` takes a string and tries to find it in the dictionary. It will return a pointer to the dictionary header or a value of zero if the word was not found. `d:lookup-xt` takes a pointer and will return the dictionary header that has this as the `d:xt` field, or zero if no match is found. ## Iteration You can use the `d:for-each` combinator to iterate over all entries in the dictionary. For instance, to display the names of all words: ``` [ d:name s:put sp ] d:for-each ``` For each entry, this combinator will push a pointer to the entry to the stack and call the quotation. ## Listing Words Most Forth systems provide WORDS for listing the names of all words in the dictionary. RETRO does as well, but this is named `d:words`. This isn't super useful as looking through several hundred names is annoying. RETRO also provides `d:words-with` to help in filtering the results. Example: ``` 'class: d:words-with ``` # Working With Floating Point Some RETRO systems include support for floating point numbers. When present, this is built over the system `libm` using the C `double` type. Floating point values are typically 64 bit IEEE 754 double precision (1 bit for the sign, 11 bits for the exponent, and the remaining 52 bits for the value), i.e. 15 decimal digits of precision. ## Prefix Floating point numbers start with a `.` Examples: Token Value .1 1.0 .0.5 0.5 .-.4 -0.4 .1.3 1.3 ## Namespace Floating point words are in the `f:` namespace. There is also a related `e:` namespace for *encoded values*, which allows storing of floats in standard memory. ## Operation Floating point values exist on a separate stack, and are bigger than the standard memory cells, so can not be directly stored and fetched from memory. The floating point system also provides an alternate stack that can be used to temporarily store values. The following words exist for arranging values on the floating point stack. These are direct analogs to the non-prefiexd words for dealing with the data stack. - `f:nip` - `f:over` - `f:depth` - `f:drop` - `f:drop-pair` - `f:dup` - `f:dup-pair` - `f:dump-stack` - `f:tuck` - `f:swap` - `f:rot` For the secondary floating point stack, the following words are provided: - `f:push` - `f:pop` - `f:adepth` - `f:dump-astack` ## Constants | Name | Returns | | -------- | ----------------- | | `f:E` | Euler's number | | `f:-INF` | Negative infinity | | `f:INF` | Positive infinity | | `f:NAN` | Not a Number | | `f:PI` | PI | ## Comparisons The basic set of comparators are the same as those for operating on integers. These are: - `f:-eq?` - `f:between?` - `f:eq?` - `f:gt?` - `f:lt?` - `f:negative?` - `f:positive?` - `f:case` There are also a few additions for comparing to special values like infinity and NaN. - `f:-inf?` - `f:inf?` - `f:nan?` ## Basic Math - `f:*` - `f:+` - `f:-` - `f:/` - `f:abs` - `f:floor` - `f:inc` - `f:limit` - `f:max` - `f:min` - `f:negate` - `f:power` - `f:ceiling` - `f:dec` - `f:log` - `f:sqrt` - `f:square` - `f:round` - `f:sign` - `f:signed-sqrt` - `f:signed-square` ## Geometry - `f:acos` - `f:asin` - `f:atan` - `f:cos` - `f:sin` - `f:tan` ## Storage and Retrieval - `f:fetch` - `f:store` - `f:to-number` - `f:to-string` ## I/O - `f:put` ## Encoded Values RETRO provides a means of encoding and decoding floating point values into standard integer cells. This is based on the paper "Encoding floating point values to shorter integers" by Kiyoshi Yoneda and Charles Childers. - `f:E1` - `f:to-e` - `e:-INF` - `e:-inf?` - `e:INF` - `e:MAX` - `e:MIN` - `e:NAN` - `e:clip` - `e:inf?` - `e:max?` - `e:min?` - `e:n?` - `e:nan?` - `e:put` - `e:to-f` - `e:zero?` # Working With Numbers Numbers in RETRO are signed, 32 bit integers with a range of -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647. ## Token Prefix All numbers start with a `#` prefix. ## Namespace Most words operating on numbers are in the `n:` namespace. # Working With Pointers ## Prefix Pointers are returned by the `&` prefix. ## Examples ``` 'Base var &Base fetch #10 &Base store #10 &n:inc call ``` ## Notes The use of `&` to get a pointer to a data structure (with a word class of `class:data`) is not required. I like to use it anyway as it makes my intent a little clearer. Pointers are useful with combinators. Consider: ``` :abs dup n:negative? [ n:negate ] if ; ``` Since the target quote body is a single word, it is more efficient to use a pointer instead: ``` :abs dup n:negative? &n:negate if ; ``` The advantages are speed (saves a level of call/return by avoiding the quotation) and size (for the same reason). This may be less readable though, so consider the balance of performance to readability when using this approach. # Working With Strings Strings in RETRO are NULL terminated sequences of values representing characters. Being NULL terminated, they can't contain a NULL (ASCII 0). The character words in RETRO are built around ASCII, but strings can contain UTF8 encoded data if the host platform allows. Words like `s:length` will return the number of bytes, not the number of logical characters in this case. ## Prefix Strings begin with a single `'`. ``` 'Hello 'This_is_a_string 'This_is_a_much_longer_string_12345_67890_!!! ``` RETRO will replace spaces with underscores. If you need both spaces and underscores in a string, escape the underscores and use `s:format`: ``` 'This_has_spaces_and_under\_scored_words. s:format ``` ## Namespace Words operating on strings are in the `s:` namespace. ## Lifetime At the interpreter, strings get allocated in a rotating buffer. This is used by the words operating on strings, so if you need to keep them around, use `s:keep` or `s:copy` to move them to more permanent storage. In a definition, the string is compiled inline and so is in permanent memory. You can manually manage the string lifetime by using `s:keep` to place it into permanent memory or `s:temp` to copy it to the rotating buffer. ## Mutability Strings are mutable. If you need to ensure that a string is not altered, make a copy before operating on it or see the individual glossary entries for notes on words that may do this automatically. ## Searching RETRO provides four words for searching within a string. `s:contains-char?` `s:contains-string?` `s:index-of` `s:index-of-string` ## Comparisons `s:eq?` `s:case` ## Extraction `s:left` `s:right` `s:substr` ## Joining You can use `s:append` or `s:prepend` to merge two strings. ``` 'First 'Second s:append 'Second 'First s:prepend ``` ## Tokenization `s:tokenize` `s:tokenize-on-string` `s:split` `s:split-on-string` ## Conversions To convert the case of a string, RETRO provides `s:to-lower` and `s:to-upper`. `s:to-number` is provided to convert a string to an integer value. This has a few limitations: - only supports decimal - non-numeric characters will result in incorrect values ## Cleanup RETRO provides a handful of words for cleaning up strings. `s:chop` will remove the last character from a string. This is done by replacing it with an ASCII:NULL. `s:trim` removes leading and trailing whitespace from a string. For more control, there is also `s:trim-left` and `s:trim-right` which let you trim just the leading or trailing end as desired. ## Combinators `s:for-each` `s:filter` `s:map` ## Other `s:evaluate` `s:copy` `s:reverse` `s:hash` `s:length` `s:replace` `s:format` `s:empty` # The Return Stack RETRO has two stacks. The primary one is used to pass data beween words. The second one primarily holds return addresses. Each time a word is called, the next address is pushed to the return stack. # Working With Assembly Language RETRO runs on a virtual machine called Nga. It provides a standard assembler for this called *Muri*. Muri is a simple, multipass model that's not fancy, but suffices for RETRO's needs. ## Assembling A Standalone File A small example (*test.muri*) ~~~ i liju.... r main : c:put i liiire.. i 0 : main i lilica.. d 97 i liju.... r main ~~~ Assembling it: retro-muri test.muri So breaking down: Muri extracts the assembly code blocks to assemble, then proceeds to do the assembly. Each source line starts with a directive, followed by a space, and then ending with a value. The directives are: : value is a label i value is an instruction bundle d value is a numeric value r value is a reference s value is a string to inline Instructions for Nga are provided as bundles. Each memory location can store up to four instructions. And each instruction gets a two character identifier. From the list of instructions: 0 nop 5 push 10 ret 15 fetch 20 div 25 zret 1 lit 6 pop 11 eq 16 store 21 and 26 end 2 dup 7 jump 12 neq 17 add 22 or 27 ienum 3 drop 8 call 13 lt 18 sub 23 xor 28 iquery 4 swap 9 ccall 14 gt 19 mul 24 shift 29 iinvoke This reduces to: 0 .. 5 pu 10 re 15 fe 20 di 25 zr 1 li 6 po 11 eq 16 st 21 an 26 en 2 du 7 ju 12 ne 17 ad 22 or 27 ie 3 dr 8 ca 13 lt 18 su 23 xo 28 iq 4 sw 9 cc 14 gt 19 mu 24 sh 29 ii Most are just the first two letters of the instruction name. I use `..` instead of `no` for `NOP`, and the first letter of each I/O instruction name. So a bundle may look like: dumure.. (This would correspond to `dup multiply return nop`). ## Runtime Assembler RETRO also has a runtime variation of Muri that can be used when you need to generate more optimal code. So one can write: :n:square dup * ; Or: :n:square as{ 'dumure.. i }as ; The second one will be faster, as the entire definition is one bundle, which reduces memory reads and decoding by 2/3. Doing this is less readable, so I only recommend doing so after you have finalized working RETRO level code and determined the best places to optimize. The runtime assembler has the following directives: i value is an instruction bundle d value is a numeric value r value is a reference Additionally, in the runtime assembler, these are reversed: 'dudumu.. i Instead of: i dudumu.. # Internals The next few chapters dive into RETRO's architecture. If you seek to implement a port to a new platform or to extend the I/O functionality you'll find helpful information here. # Internals: Nga Virtual Machine ## Overview At the heart of RETRO is a simple MISC (minimal instruction set computer) processor for a dual stack architecture. This is a very simple and straightforward system. There are 30 instructions. The memory is a linear array of signed 32 bit values. And there are two stacks: one for data and one for return addresses. ## Instrution Table Column: 0 - opcode value 1 - Muri assembly name 2 - Full name 3 - Data Stack Usage 4 - Address Stack Usage +--------------------------------------------------+ | 0 .. nop - - | | 1 li lit -n - | | 2 du dup n-nn - | | 3 dr drop n- - | | 4 sw swap xy-yx - | | 5 pu push n- -n | | 6 po pop -n n- | | 7 ju jump a- - | | 8 ca call a- -A | | 9 cc conditional call af- -A | | 10 re return - A- | | 11 eq equality xy-f - | | 12 ne inequality xy-f - | | 13 lt less than xy-f - | | 14 gt greater than xy-f - | | 15 fe fetch a-n - | | 16 st store na- - | | 17 ad addition xy-n - | | 18 su subtraction xy-n - | | 19 mu multiplication xy-n - | | 20 di divide & remainder xy-rq - | | 21 an bitwise and xy-n - | | 22 or bitwise or xy-n - | | 23 xo bitwise xor xy-n - | | 24 sh shift xy-n - | | 25 zr zero return n-n | n- - | | 26 en end - - | | 27 ie i/o enumerate -n - | | 28 iq i/o query n-xy - | | 29 ii i/o invoke ...n- - | | | | Each `li` will push the value in the following | | cell to the data stack. | +--------------------------------------------------+ | li du mu .. | | i lidumu.. 00000001:00000010:00010011:00000000 | | data for li | | d 2 00000000:00000000:00000000:00000010 | | | | Assembler Directives Instruction Bundles | | ======================== ==================== | | : label Combine instruction | | i bundle names in groups of 4 | | d numeric-data | | r ref-to-address-by-name Use only .. after | | s null-terminated string ju, ca, cc, re, zr | +--------------------------------------------------+ ## Misc There are 810,000 possible combinations of instructions. Only 73 are used in the implementation of RETRO. # Internals: I/O RETRO provides three words for interacting with I/O. These are: io:enumerate returns the number of attached devices io:query returns information about a device io:invoke invokes an interaction with a device As an example, with an implementation providing an output source, a block storage system, and keyboard: io:enumerate will return `3` since there are three i/o devices #0 io:query will return 0 0, since the first device is a screen (type 0) with a version of 0 #1 io:query will return 1 3, since the second device is block storage (type 3), with a version of 1 #2 io:query will return 0 1, since the last device is a keyboard (type 1), with a version of 0 In this case, some interactions can be defined: :c:put #0 io:invoke ; :c:get #2 io:invoke ; Setup the stack, push the device ID, and then use `io:invoke` to invoke the interaction. A RETRO system requires one I/O device (a generic output for a single character). This must be the first device, and must have a device ID of 0. All other devices are optional and can be specified in any order. # Internals: Interface Layers Nga provides a virtual processor and an extensible way of adding I/O devices, but does not provide any I/O itself. Adding I/O is the responsability of the *interface layer*. An interface layer will wrap Nga, providing at least one I/O device (a generic output target), and a means of interacting with the *retro image*. It's expected that this layer will be host specific, adding any system interactions that are needed via the I/O instructions. The image will typically be extended with words to use these. # Internals: The Retro Image The actual RETRO language is stored as a memory image for Nga. ## Format The image file is a flat, linear sequence of signed 32-bit values. Each value is stored in little endian format. The size is not fixed. An interface should check when loading to ensure that the physical image is not larger than the emulated memory. ## Header The image will start with two cells. The first is a liju.... instruction, the second is the target address for the jump. This serves to skip over the rest of the data and reach the actual entry point. This is followed by a pointer to the most recent dictionary header, a pointer to the next free address in memory, and then the RETRO version number. | Offset | Contains | | ------ | --------------------------- | | 0 | lit call nop nop | | 1 | Pointer to main entry point | | 2 | Dictionary | | 3 | Heap | | 4 | RETRO version | The actual code starts after this header. The version number is the year and month. As an example, the 12.2019.6 release will have a version number of `201906`. ## Layout Assuming an Nga built with 524287 cells of memory: | RANGE | CONTAINS | | --------------- | ---------------------------- | | 0 - 1024 | rx kernel | | 1025 - 1535 | token input buffer | | 1536 + | start of heap space | | ............... | free memory for your use | | 506879 | buffer for string evaluate | | 507904 | temporary strings (32 * 512) | | 524287 | end of memory | The buffers at the end of memory will resize when specific variables related to them are altered. # Additional Tools In addition to the core `retro` binary, the `bin` directory will contain a few other tools. ## retro This is the main RETRO binary. ## retro-describe This is a program that looks up entries in the Glossary. At the command line, you can use it like: ``` retro-describe s:for-each ``` ## retro-embedimage This is a program which generates a C file with the ngaImage contents. It's used when building `retro`. ``` retro-embedimage ngaImage ``` The output is written to stdout; redirect it as needed. ## retro-extend This is a program which compiles code into the ngaImage. It's used when building `retro` and when you want to make a standalone image with custom additions. Example command line: ``` retro-extend ngaImage example/rot13.forth ``` Pass the image name as the first argument, and then file names as susequent ones. Do *not* use this for things relying on I/O apart from the basic console output as it doesn't emulate other devices. If you need to load in things that rely on using the optional I/O devices, see the Advanced Builds chapter. ## retro-muri This is the assembler for Nga. It's used to build the initial RETRO kernel and can be used by other tools as well. ## retro-unu This is the literate source extraction tool for RETRO. It is used in building `retro`. Example usage: ``` retro-unu literate/RetroForth.md ``` Output is written to stdout; redirect as neeeded. # Advanced Builds For users of BSD, Linux, macOS, you can customize the image at build time. In the top level directory is a `packages` directory containing a file named `list`. You can add files to compile into your system by adding them to the `list` and rebuilding. Example: If you have wanted to include the NumbersWithoutPrefixes.forth example, add: ~~~ 'example/NumbersWithoutPrefixes.forth include ~~~ To the start of the `list` file and then run `make` again. The newly built `bin/retro` will now include your additions. # The Optional Retro Compiler In addition to the base system, users of RETRO on Unix hosts with ELF executables can build and use the `retro-compiler` to generate turnkey executables. ## Requirements - Unix host - ELF executable support - objcpy in the $PATH ## Building BSD users: make bin/retro-compiler Linux users: make -f Makefile.linux bin/retro-compiler ## Installing Copy `bin/retro-compiler` to somewhere in your $PATH. ## Using `retro-compiler` takes two arguments: the source file to compile and the name of the word to use as the main entry point. Example: Given a `hello.forth`: ``` :hello 'Hello_World! s:put nl ; ``` Use: ``` retro-compiler hello.forth hello ``` The compiler will generate an `a.out` file which you can then rename. ## Known Limitations This does not provide the scripting support for command line arguments that the standard `retro` interface offers. A copy of `objcopy` needs to be in the path for compilation to work. The current working directory must be writable. This only supports hosts using ELF executables. The output file name is fixed to `a.out`.