diff --git a/doc/RETRO-Book.md b/doc/RETRO-Book.md index 7336634..e69de29 100644 --- a/doc/RETRO-Book.md +++ b/doc/RETRO-Book.md @@ -1,4600 +0,0 @@ -# RETRO: a Modern, Pragmatic Forth - -Welcome to RETRO, my personal take on the Forth language. This -is a modern system primarily targetting desktop, mobile, and -servers, though it can also be used on some larger (ARM, MIPS32) -embedded systems. - -The language is Forth. It is untyped, uses a stack to pass data -between functions called words, and a dictionary which tracks -the word names and data structures. - -But it's not a traditional Forth. RETRO draws influences from -many sources and takes a unique approach to the language. - -RETRO has a large vocabulary of words. Keeping a copy of the -Glossary on hand is highly recommended as you learn to use RETRO. - -This book will hopefully help you develop a better understanding -of RETRO and how it works. - -The text in these files is Copyright (c) 2018-2020 by -Charles Childers. - -To the extent possible under law, Charles Childers has -waived all copyright and related or neighboring rights -to the RETRO Documentation. This work is published from: -United States. - -The historical papers are Copyright (c) 1999-2000 by -Tom Novelli. - -## Legal Text - -See https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/legalcode - -The laws of most jurisdictions throughout the world automatically confer -exclusive Copyright and Related Rights (defined below) upon the creator -and subsequent owner(s) (each and all, an "owner") of an original work -of authorship and/or a database (each, a "Work"). - -Certain owners wish to permanently relinquish those rights to a Work for -the purpose of contributing to a commons of creative, cultural and -scientific works ("Commons") that the public can reliably and without -fear of later claims of infringement build upon, modify, incorporate in -other works, reuse and redistribute as freely as possible in any form -whatsoever and for any purposes, including without limitation commercial -purposes. These owners may contribute to the Commons to promote the -ideal of a free culture and the further production of creative, cultural -and scientific works, or to gain reputation or greater distribution for -their Work in part through the use and efforts of others. - -For these and/or other purposes and motivations, and without any -expectation of additional consideration or compensation, the person -associating CC0 with a Work (the "Affirmer"), to the extent that he or -she is an owner of Copyright and Related Rights in the Work, voluntarily -elects to apply CC0 to the Work and publicly distribute the Work under -its terms, with knowledge of his or her Copyright and Related Rights in -the Work and the meaning and intended legal effect of CC0 on those -rights. - -1. Copyright and Related Rights. A Work made available under CC0 may be -protected by copyright and related or neighboring rights ("Copyright and -Related Rights"). Copyright and Related Rights include, but are not -limited to, the following: - -- the right to reproduce, adapt, distribute, perform, display, - communicate, and translate a Work; -- moral rights retained by the original author(s) and/or performer(s); -- publicity and privacy rights pertaining to a person's image or - likeness depicted in a Work; -- rights protecting against unfair competition in regards to a Work, - subject to the limitations in paragraph 4(a), below; -- rights protecting the extraction, dissemination, use and reuse of data - in a Work; -- database rights (such as those arising under Directive 96/9/EC of the - European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 1996 on the legal - protection of databases, and under any national implementation thereof, - including any amended or successor version of such directive); and -- other similar, equivalent or corresponding rights throughout the world - based on applicable law or treaty, and any national implementations - thereof. - -2. Waiver. To the greatest extent permitted by, but not in contravention -of, applicable law, Affirmer hereby overtly, fully, permanently, -irrevocably and unconditionally waives, abandons, and surrenders all of -Affirmer's Copyright and Related Rights and associated claims and causes -of action, whether now known or unknown (including existing as well as -future claims and causes of action), in the Work (i) in all territories -worldwide, (ii) for the maximum duration provided by applicable law or -treaty (including future time extensions), (iii) in any current or -future medium and for any number of copies, and (iv) for any purpose -whatsoever, including without limitation commercial, advertising or -promotional purposes (the "Waiver"). Affirmer makes the Waiver for the -benefit of each member of the public at large and to the detriment of -Affirmer's heirs and successors, fully intending that such Waiver shall -not be subject to revocation, rescission, cancellation, termination, or -any other legal or equitable action to disrupt the quiet enjoyment of -the Work by the public as contemplated by Affirmer's express Statement -of Purpose. - -3. Public License Fallback. Should any part of the Waiver for any reason -be judged legally invalid or ineffective under applicable law, then the -Waiver shall be preserved to the maximum extent permitted taking into -account Affirmer's express Statement of Purpose. In addition, to the -extent the Waiver is so judged Affirmer hereby grants to each affected -person a royalty-free, non transferable, non sublicensable, non -exclusive, irrevocable and unconditional license to exercise Affirmer's -Copyright and Related Rights in the Work (i) in all territories -worldwide, (ii) for the maximum duration provided by applicable law or -treaty (including future time extensions), (iii) in any current or -future medium and for any number of copies, and (iv) for any purpose -whatsoever, including without limitation commercial, advertising or -promotional purposes (the "License"). The License shall be deemed -effective as of the date CC0 was applied by Affirmer to the Work. Should -any part of the License for any reason be judged legally invalid or -ineffective under applicable law, such partial invalidity or -ineffectiveness shall not invalidate the remainder of the License, and -in such case Affirmer hereby affirms that he or she will not (i) -exercise any of his or her remaining Copyright and Related Rights in the -Work or (ii) assert any associated claims and causes of action with -respect to the Work, in either case contrary to Affirmer's express -Statement of Purpose. - -4. Limitations and Disclaimers. - -No trademark or patent rights held by Affirmer are waived, abandoned, -surrendered, licensed or otherwise affected by this document. - -Affirmer offers the Work as-is and makes no representations or -warranties of any kind concerning the Work, express, implied, statutory -or otherwise, including without limitation warranties of title, -merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, non infringement, or -the absence of latent or other defects, accuracy, or the present or -absence of errors, whether or not discoverable, all to the greatest -extent permissible under applicable law. - -Affirmer disclaims responsibility for clearing rights of other persons -that may apply to the Work or any use thereof, including without -limitation any person's Copyright and Related Rights in the Work. -Further, Affirmer disclaims responsibility for obtaining any necessary -consents, permissions or other rights required for any use of the Work. - -Affirmer understands and acknowledges that Creative Commons is not a -party to this document and has no duty or obligation with respect to -this CC0 or use of the Work. - ----- - -The Code It Yourself Manifesto is Copyright (c) 2016 by -Christian Kellermann and is used under the -Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-SA 3.0) license. - -This license reads: - -THE WORK (AS DEFINED BELOW) IS PROVIDED UNDER THE TERMS OF THIS CREATIVE -COMMONS PUBLIC LICENSE ("CCPL" OR "LICENSE"). THE WORK IS PROTECTED BY -COPYRIGHT AND/OR OTHER APPLICABLE LAW. ANY USE OF THE WORK OTHER THAN AS -AUTHORIZED UNDER THIS LICENSE OR COPYRIGHT LAW IS PROHIBITED. - -BY EXERCISING ANY RIGHTS TO THE WORK PROVIDED HERE, YOU ACCEPT AND AGREE -TO BE BOUND BY THE TERMS OF THIS LICENSE. TO THE EXTENT THIS LICENSE MAY -BE CONSIDERED TO BE A CONTRACT, THE LICENSOR GRANTS YOU THE RIGHTS -CONTAINED HERE IN CONSIDERATION OF YOUR ACCEPTANCE OF SUCH TERMS AND -CONDITIONS. - -1. Definitions - -"Adaptation" means a work based upon the Work, or upon the Work and -other pre-existing works, such as a translation, adaptation, derivative -work, arrangement of music or other alterations of a literary or -artistic work, or phonogram or performance and includes cinematographic -adaptations or any other form in which the Work may be recast, -transformed, or adapted including in any form recognizably derived from -the original, except that a work that constitutes a Collection will not -be considered an Adaptation for the purpose of this License. For the -avoidance of doubt, where the Work is a musical work, performance or -phonogram, the synchronization of the Work in timed-relation with a -moving image ("synching") will be considered an Adaptation for the -purpose of this License. - -"Collection" means a collection of literary or artistic works, such as -encyclopedias and anthologies, or performances, phonograms or -broadcasts, or other works or subject matter other than works listed in -Section 1(f) below, which, by reason of the selection and arrangement of -their contents, constitute intellectual creations, in which the Work is -included in its entirety in unmodified form along with one or more other -contributions, each constituting separate and independent works in -themselves, which together are assembled into a collective whole. A work -that constitutes a Collection will not be considered an Adaptation (as -defined below) for the purposes of this License. - -"Creative Commons Compatible License" means a license that is listed at -https://creativecommons.org/compatiblelicenses that has been approved by -Creative Commons as being essentially equivalent to this License, -including, at a minimum, because that license: (i) contains terms that -have the same purpose, meaning and effect as the License Elements of -this License; and, (ii) explicitly permits the relicensing of -adaptations of works made available under that license under this -License or a Creative Commons jurisdiction license with the same License -Elements as this License. - -"Distribute" means to make available to the public the original and -copies of the Work or Adaptation, as appropriate, through sale or other -transfer of ownership. - -"License Elements" means the following high-level license attributes as -selected by Licensor and indicated in the title of this License: -Attribution, ShareAlike. - -"Licensor" means the individual, individuals, entity or entities that -offer(s) the Work under the terms of this License. - -"Original Author" means, in the case of a literary or artistic work, the -individual, individuals, entity or entities who created the Work or if -no individual or entity can be identified, the publisher; and in -addition (i) in the case of a performance the actors, singers, -musicians, dancers, and other persons who act, sing, deliver, declaim, -play in, interpret or otherwise perform literary or artistic works or -expressions of folklore; (ii) in the case of a phonogram the producer -being the person or legal entity who first fixes the sounds of a -performance or other sounds; and, (iii) in the case of broadcasts, the -organization that transmits the broadcast. - -"Work" means the literary and/or artistic work offered under the terms -of this License including without limitation any production in the -literary, scientific and artistic domain, whatever may be the mode or -form of its expression including digital form, such as a book, pamphlet -and other writing; a lecture, address, sermon or other work of the same -nature; a dramatic or dramatico-musical work; a choreographic work or -entertainment in dumb show; a musical composition with or without words; -a cinematographic work to which are assimilated works expressed by a -process analogous to cinematography; a work of drawing, painting, -architecture, sculpture, engraving or lithography; a photographic work -to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to -photography; a work of applied art; an illustration, map, plan, sketch -or three-dimensional work relative to geography, topography, -architecture or science; a performance; a broadcast; a phonogram; a -compilation of data to the extent it is protected as a copyrightable -work; or a work performed by a variety or circus performer to the extent -it is not otherwise considered a literary or artistic work. - -"You" means an individual or entity exercising rights under this License -who has not previously violated the terms of this License with respect -to the Work, or who has received express permission from the Licensor to -exercise rights under this License despite a previous violation. - -"Publicly Perform" means to perform public recitations of the Work and -to communicate to the public those public recitations, by any means or -process, including by wire or wireless means or public digital -performances; to make available to the public Works in such a way that -members of the public may access these Works from a place and at a place -individually chosen by them; to perform the Work to the public by any -means or process and the communication to the public of the performances -of the Work, including by public digital performance; to broadcast and -rebroadcast the Work by any means including signs, sounds or images. - -"Reproduce" means to make copies of the Work by any means including -without limitation by sound or visual recordings and the right of -fixation and reproducing fixations of the Work, including storage of a -protected performance or phonogram in digital form or other electronic -medium. - -2. Fair Dealing Rights. Nothing in this License is intended to reduce, -limit, or restrict any uses free from copyright or rights arising from -limitations or exceptions that are provided for in connection with the -copyright protection under copyright law or other applicable laws. - -3. License Grant. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, -Licensor hereby grants You a worldwide, royalty-free, non-exclusive, -perpetual (for the duration of the applicable copyright) license to -exercise the rights in the Work as stated below: - -- to Reproduce the Work, to incorporate the Work into one or more - Collections, and to Reproduce the Work as incorporated in the - Collections; - -- to create and Reproduce Adaptations provided that any such Adaptation, - including any translation in any medium, takes reasonable steps to - clearly label, demarcate or otherwise identify that changes were made to - the original Work. For example, a translation could be marked "The - original work was translated from English to Spanish," or a modification - could indicate "The original work has been modified."; - -- to Distribute and Publicly Perform the Work including as incorporated in - Collections; and, - -- to Distribute and Publicly Perform Adaptations. - -For the avoidance of doubt: - -Non-waivable Compulsory License Schemes. In those jurisdictions in which -the right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory -licensing scheme cannot be waived, the Licensor reserves the exclusive -right to collect such royalties for any exercise by You of the rights -granted under this License; - -Waivable Compulsory License Schemes. In those jurisdictions in which the -right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory licensing -scheme can be waived, the Licensor waives the exclusive right to collect -such royalties for any exercise by You of the rights granted under this -License; and, - -Voluntary License Schemes. The Licensor waives the right to collect -royalties, whether individually or, in the event that the Licensor is a -member of a collecting society that administers voluntary licensing -schemes, via that society, from any exercise by You of the rights -granted under this License. - -The above rights may be exercised in all media and formats whether now -known or hereafter devised. The above rights include the right to make -such modifications as are technically necessary to exercise the rights -in other media and formats. Subject to Section 8(f), all rights not -expressly granted by Licensor are hereby reserved. - -4. Restrictions. The license granted in Section 3 above is expressly -made subject to and limited by the following restrictions: - -You may Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work only under the terms of -this License. You must include a copy of, or the Uniform Resource -Identifier (URI) for, this License with every copy of the Work You -Distribute or Publicly Perform. You may not offer or impose any terms on -the Work that restrict the terms of this License or the ability of the -recipient of the Work to exercise the rights granted to that recipient -under the terms of the License. You may not sublicense the Work. You -must keep intact all notices that refer to this License and to the -disclaimer of warranties with every copy of the Work You Distribute or -Publicly Perform. When You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work, You -may not impose any effective technological measures on the Work that -restrict the ability of a recipient of the Work from You to exercise the -rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the License. This -Section 4(a) applies to the Work as incorporated in a Collection, but -this does not require the Collection apart from the Work itself to be -made subject to the terms of this License. If You create a Collection, -upon notice from any Licensor You must, to the extent practicable, -remove from the Collection any credit as required by Section 4(c), as -requested. If You create an Adaptation, upon notice from any Licensor -You must, to the extent practicable, remove from the Adaptation any -credit as required by Section 4(c), as requested. - -You may Distribute or Publicly Perform an Adaptation only under the -terms of: (i) this License; (ii) a later version of this License with -the same License Elements as this License; (iii) a Creative Commons -jurisdiction license (either this or a later license version) that -contains the same License Elements as this License (e.g., -Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 US)); (iv) a Creative Commons Compatible -License. If you license the Adaptation under one of the licenses -mentioned in (iv), you must comply with the terms of that license. If -you license the Adaptation under the terms of any of the licenses -mentioned in (i), (ii) or (iii) (the "Applicable License"), you must -comply with the terms of the Applicable License generally and the -following provisions: (I) You must include a copy of, or the URI for, -the Applicable License with every copy of each Adaptation You Distribute -or Publicly Perform; (II) You may not offer or impose any terms on the -Adaptation that restrict the terms of the Applicable License or the -ability of the recipient of the Adaptation to exercise the rights -granted to that recipient under the terms of the Applicable License; -(III) You must keep intact all notices that refer to the Applicable -License and to the disclaimer of warranties with every copy of the Work -as included in the Adaptation You Distribute or Publicly Perform; (IV) -when You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Adaptation, You may not -impose any effective technological measures on the Adaptation that -restrict the ability of a recipient of the Adaptation from You to -exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the -Applicable License. This Section 4(b) applies to the Adaptation as -incorporated in a Collection, but this does not require the Collection -apart from the Adaptation itself to be made subject to the terms of the -Applicable License. - -If You Distribute, or Publicly Perform the Work or any Adaptations or -Collections, You must, unless a request has been made pursuant to -Section 4(a), keep intact all copyright notices for the Work and -provide, reasonable to the medium or means You are utilizing: (i) the -name of the Original Author (or pseudonym, if applicable) if supplied, -and/or if the Original Author and/or Licensor designate another party or -parties (e.g., a sponsor institute, publishing entity, journal) for -attribution ("Attribution Parties") in Licensor's copyright notice, -terms of service or by other reasonable means, the name of such party or -parties; (ii) the title of the Work if supplied; (iii) to the extent -reasonably practicable, the URI, if any, that Licensor specifies to be -associated with the Work, unless such URI does not refer to the -copyright notice or licensing information for the Work; and (iv) , -consistent with Ssection 3(b), in the case of an Adaptation, a credit -identifying the use of the Work in the Adaptation (e.g., "French -translation of the Work by Original Author," or "Screenplay based on -original Work by Original Author"). The credit required by this Section -4(c) may be implemented in any reasonable manner; provided, however, -that in the case of a Adaptation or Collection, at a minimum such credit -will appear, if a credit for all contributing authors of the Adaptation -or Collection appears, then as part of these credits and in a manner at -least as prominent as the credits for the other contributing authors. -For the avoidance of doubt, You may only use the credit required by this -Section for the purpose of attribution in the manner set out above and, -by exercising Your rights under this License, You may not implicitly or -explicitly assert or imply any connection with, sponsorship or -endorsement by the Original Author, Licensor and/or Attribution Parties, -as appropriate, of You or Your use of the Work, without the separate, -express prior written permission of the Original Author, Licensor and/or -Attribution Parties. - -Except as otherwise agreed in writing by the Licensor or as may be -otherwise permitted by applicable law, if You Reproduce, Distribute or -Publicly Perform the Work either by itself or as part of any Adaptations -or Collections, You must not distort, mutilate, modify or take other -derogatory action in relation to the Work which would be prejudicial to -the Original Author's honor or reputation. Licensor agrees that in those -jurisdictions (e.g. Japan), in which any exercise of the right granted -in Section 3(b) of this License (the right to make Adaptations) would be -deemed to be a distortion, mutilation, modification or other derogatory -action prejudicial to the Original Author's honor and reputation, the -Licensor will waive or not assert, as appropriate, this Section, to the -fullest extent permitted by the applicable national law, to enable You -to reasonably exercise Your right under Section 3(b) of this License -(right to make Adaptations) but not otherwise. - -5. Representations, Warranties and Disclaimer - -UNLESS OTHERWISE MUTUALLY AGREED TO BY THE PARTIES IN WRITING, LICENSOR -OFFERS THE WORK AS-IS AND MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY -KIND CONCERNING THE WORK, EXPRESS, IMPLIED, STATUTORY OR OTHERWISE, -INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF TITLE, MERCHANTIBILITY, -FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, NONINFRINGEMENT, OR THE ABSENCE OF -LATENT OR OTHER DEFECTS, ACCURACY, OR THE PRESENCE OF ABSENCE OF ERRORS, -WHETHER OR NOT DISCOVERABLE. SOME JURISDICTIONS DO NOT ALLOW THE -EXCLUSION OF IMPLIED WARRANTIES, SO SUCH EXCLUSION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU. - -6. Limitation on Liability. EXCEPT TO THE EXTENT REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE -LAW, IN NO EVENT WILL LICENSOR BE LIABLE TO YOU ON ANY LEGAL THEORY FOR -ANY SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR EXEMPLARY DAMAGES -ARISING OUT OF THIS LICENSE OR THE USE OF THE WORK, EVEN IF LICENSOR HAS -BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. - -7. Termination - -This License and the rights granted hereunder will terminate -automatically upon any breach by You of the terms of this License. -Individuals or entities who have received Adaptations or Collections -from You under this License, however, will not have their licenses -terminated provided such individuals or entities remain in full -compliance with those licenses. Sections 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8 will -survive any termination of this License. Subject to the above terms and -conditions, the license granted here is perpetual (for the duration of -the applicable copyright in the Work). Notwithstanding the above, -Licensor reserves the right to release the Work under different license -terms or to stop distributing the Work at any time; provided, however -that any such election will not serve to withdraw this License (or any -other license that has been, or is required to be, granted under the -terms of this License), and this License will continue in full force and -effect unless terminated as stated above. 8. Miscellaneous - -Each time You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work or a Collection, -the Licensor offers to the recipient a license to the Work on the same -terms and conditions as the license granted to You under this License. - -Each time You Distribute or Publicly Perform an Adaptation, Licensor -offers to the recipient a license to the original Work on the same terms -and conditions as the license granted to You under this License. - -If any provision of this License is invalid or unenforceable under -applicable law, it shall not affect the validity or enforceability of -the remainder of the terms of this License, and without further action -by the parties to this agreement, such provision shall be reformed to -the minimum extent necessary to make such provision valid and -enforceable. - -No term or provision of this License shall be deemed waived and no -breach consented to unless such waiver or consent shall be in writing -and signed by the party to be charged with such waiver or consent. - -This License constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with -respect to the Work licensed here. There are no understandings, -agreements or representations with respect to the Work not specified -here. Licensor shall not be bound by any additional provisions that may -appear in any communication from You. This License may not be modified -without the mutual written agreement of the Licensor and You. - -The rights granted under, and the subject matter referenced, in this -License were drafted utilizing the terminology of the Berne Convention -for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (as amended on -September 28, 1979), the Rome Convention of 1961, the WIPO Copyright -Treaty of 1996, the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty of 1996 and -the Universal Copyright Convention (as revised on July 24, 1971). These -rights and subject matter take effect in the relevant jurisdiction in -which the License terms are sought to be enforced according to the -corresponding provisions of the implementation of those treaty -provisions in the applicable national law. If the standard suite of -rights granted under applicable copyright law includes additional rights -not granted under this License, such additional rights are deemed to be -included in the License; this License is not intended to restrict the -license of any rights under applicable law. - -# Obtaining RETRO - -## Stable Releases - -I periodically make stable releases. This will typically happen -two to four times per year. These are good for those needing a -solid base that doesn't change frequently. - -- http://forthworks.com/retro -- http://forth.works - -## Snapshots - -A lot of development happens between releases. I make snapshots -of my working source tree nightly (and often more often). - -This is what I personally recommend for most users. It reflects -my latest system and is normally reliable as it's used daily in -production. - -The latest snapshot can be downloaded from the following stable -URLs: - -* http://forthworks.com/retro/r/latest.tar.gz -* gopher://forthworks.com/9/retro/r/latest.tar.gz - -## Repository - -I use a Fossil repository to manage development. To obtain a -copy of the repository install Fossil and: - - fossil clone http://forthworks.com:8000 retro.fossil - mkdir retro - cd retro - fossil open /path/to/retro.fossil - -See the Fossil documentation for details on using Fossil to -keep your local copy of the repository current. - -This will let you stay current with my latest changes faster -than the snapshots, but you may occasionally encounter bigger -problems as some commits may be in a partially broken state. - -If you have problems, check the version of Fossil you are -using. I am currently using Fossil 2.10, you may experience -issues checking out or cloning if using older versions. - -# Building on BSD, Linux, macOS, and outher Inix Targets - -RETRO is well supported on BSD (tested on FreeBSD, NetBSD, -OpenBSD), Linux, and macOS systems. It should build on any -of these without issue. - -## Requirements - -- c compiler & linker -- standard headers -- make - -## Process - -For a standard 32-bit system: - -Run `make` - -For a 64-bit system: - -Run `make OPTIONS=-DBIT64` - -This will build the toolchain and then the main `retro` -executable. - -## Executables - -In the `bin/` directory: - - retro - retro-unu - retro-muri - retro-extend - retro-embedimage - retro-describe - -## Platform Specific Notes - -In addition to the 64-bit build, it is possible to override the -image size, address stack depth, and data stack depth by defining -the appropriate elements. - -E.g., for a 64-bit build with: - - 4,000,000 cells of memory - 4,000 item limit on data stack - 500 item limit on address stack - -Run `make OPTIONS="-DBIT64 -DIMAGE_SIZE=4000000 -DSTACK_DEPTH=4000 -DADDRESSES=500"` - - -### Haiku - -To build on Haiku, you need to link with the *network* library. -E.g.: - - make LDFLAGS=-lnetwork - -## Issues - -If you run into any build issues, please send details to -crc@forth.works so I can work on addressing them as quickly -as possible. - -# Building RETRO on Windows - -It is possible to build RETRO on Windows, though a few of the -extensions are not supported: - -- no `unix:` words -- no `gopher:` words - -This is currently more difficult than on a Unix host. If you have -Windows 10 and WSL, it may be better to build under that (using -the Unix instructions). - -## Setup Build Environment - -RETRO on Windows is built with TCC. - -Go to http://download.savannah.gnu.org/releases/tinycc/ - -Download the *winapi-full* and *tcc-xxxx-bin* packages for your -system. Decompress them, copy the headers from the winapi -package into the tcc directory. - -## Prepare Source - -Copy the `source/interfaces/retro-windows.c` and the -`source/interfaces/retro-windows.c` to the directory you setup -tcc into. - -## Build - -Building will require use of the command line. Assuming that -tcc.exe is in the current directory along with the RETRO sources: - - tcc retro-windows.c -o retro.exe - -# Building Alternative Systems - -In addition to the C implementation, there are a few other -interfaces that can be built. - -## Requirements - -- c compiler (tested: clang, tcc, gcc) -- make -- standard unix shell - -## retro-repl - -A basic interactive system can be built by using: - - make bin/retro-repl - -This requires a copy of `ngaImage` to be in the current -directory. - -## Barebones - -This is a minimal version of the `retro-repl`. It keeps the C -portion as short as possible, making it a useful starting point -for new interfaces. - -To build: - - make bin/retro-barebones - -## retro-compiler - -This is a turnkey compiler. It can compile a new executable -bundling a Retro VM and image. - -Requirements: - -- BSD or Linux -- objcopy in $PATH - -To build: - - make bin/retro-compiler - -Example use: - -1. Given a source file like "Hello.forth": - - ~~~ - :hello 'hello_world! s:put nl ; - ~~~ - -2. Use: - - ./bin/retro-compiler Hello.forth hello - -The first argument is the source file, the second is the -word to run on startup. - -3. Run the generated `a.out` - -Limits: - -This only supports the core words ('all' interface) and the -file i/o words. Support for other I/O extensions will be -added in the future. - -## Pascal - -There is a Pascal version of `retro-repl`. - -Dependencies: - -- freepascal - -Building: - - cd vm/nga-pascal - fpc listener.lpr - -This will require a copy of the `ngaImage` in the -current directory. - -## Python: retro.py - -This is an implementation of `retro-repl` in Python. As -with `retro-repl` it requires the `ngaImage` in the current -directory when starting. - -## C#: retro.cs - -This is an implementation of `retro-repl` in C#. As with -`retro-repl` it requires the `ngaImage` in the current -directory when starting. - -Building: - - cd vm\nga-csharp - csc retro.cs - -You'll need to make sure your path has the CSC.EXE in it, -or provide a full path to it. Something like this should -reveal the path to use: - - dir /s %WINDIR%\CSC.EXE - -I've only tested building this using Microsoft's .NET tools. -It should also build and run under Mono. - -# Advanced Builds - -## Custom Image - -For users of BSD, Linux, macOS, you can customize the image at -build time. - -In the top level directory is a `package` directory containing -a file named `list.forth`. You can add files to compile into -your system by adding them to the `list.forth` and rebuilding. - -Example: - -If you have wanted to include the NumbersWithoutPrefixes.forth -example, add: - - ~~~ - 'example/NumbersWithoutPrefixes.forth include - ~~~ - -To the start of the `list.forth` file and then run `make` again. -The newly built `bin/retro` will now include your additions. - -# Starting RETRO - -RETRO can be run for scripting or interactive use. - -## Interactive - -To start it interactively, run: `retro` without any command line -arguments, or with `-i`, `-s`, or `-i,c`. - -Starting the interactive system: - -``` -retro -``` - -Or: - -``` -retro -i -``` - -This should be sufficient for most uses. - -Starting the interactive system (without displaying the -startup banner): - -``` -retro -s -``` - -## Using In a Pipe - -If using a Unix shell and piping input between processes, you -will probably want to use `-s` to supress the startup messages -and `Ok` prompt that normally appear. - -E.g., - -``` -echo "'lol s:put nl" | retro -s -``` - -## Running A Program In A File - -You can run code in a file very easily. This is simply: - -``` -retro filename -``` - -You can follow the filename with any arguments that it may need. -These will be accessible to the program via the `script:arguments` -and `script:get-argument` words. - -Source files must be written in Unu format. - -## Scripting - -You can use RETRO to write scripts. Add a shebang: - -``` -#!/usr/bin/env retro -``` - -And make the file executable. - -Source files must be written in Unu format. - -## Command Line Arguments - -For a summary of the full command line arguments available: - - Scripting Usage: - - retro filename [script arguments...] - - Interactive Usage: - - retro [-h] [-i] [-c] [-s] [-f filename] [-t] - - -h Display this help text - -i Interactive mode (line buffered) - -s Suppress the startup text - -f filename Run the contents of the specified file - -t Run tests (in ``` blocks) in any loaded files - -# Basic Interactions - -Start RETRO in interactive mode: - -``` -retro -i -``` - -You should see something similar to this: - - RETRO 12 (rx-2019.6) - 8388608 MAX, TIB @ 1025, Heap @ 9374 - -At this point you are at the *listener*, which reads and -processes your input. You are now set to begin exploring -RETRO. - -To exit, run `bye`: - -``` -bye -``` - -# Unu: Simple, Literate Source Files - -RETRO is written in a literate style. Most of the sources -are in a format called Unu. This allows easy mixing of -commentary and code blocks, making it simple to document -the code. - -As an example, - - # Determine The Average Word Name Length - - To determine the average length of a word name two values - are needed. First, the total length of all names in the - Dictionary: - - ~~~ - #0 [ d:name s:length + ] d:for-each - ~~~ - - And then the number of words in the Dictionary: - - ~~~ - #0 [ drop n:inc ] d:for-each - ~~~ - - With these, a simple division is all that's left. - - ~~~ - / - ~~~ - - Finally, display the results: - - - ~~~ - 'Average_name_length:_%n\n s:format s:put - ~~~ - -This illustrates the format. Only code in the fenced blocks -(between \~~~ pairs) get extracted and run. - -(Note: this only applies to source files; fences are not used -when entering code interactively). - -## On The Name - -The name Unu comes from the Maori language, where it means: - - (verb) (-hia) pull out, withdraw, draw out, extract. - Taken from https://maoridictionary.co.nz/ - -# A Quick Tutorial - -Programming in RETRO is all about creating words to solve -the problem at hand. Words operate on data, which can be -kept in memory or on the stack. - -Let's look at this by solving a small problem: writing a -word to determine if a string is a palindrome. - -A palindrome is a phrase which reads the same backward -and forward. - -We first need a string to look at. Starting with something -easy: - -``` -'anna -``` - -Looking in the Glossary, there is a `s:reverse` word for -reversing a string. We can find `dup` to copy a value, and -`s:eq?` to compare two strings. So testing: - -``` -'anna dup s:reverse s:eq? -``` - -This yields -1 (`TRUE`) as expected. So we can easily -name it: - -``` -:palindrome? dup s:reverse s:eq? ; -``` - -Naming uses the `:` prefix to add a new word to the dictionary. -The words that make up the definition are then placed, with a -final word (`;`) ending the definition. We can then use this: - -``` -'anna palindrome? -``` - -Once defined there is no difference between our new word and -any of the words already provided by the RETRO system. - -# Syntax - -RETRO has more syntax than a traditional Forth due to ideas -borrowed from ColorForth and some design decisions. This has -some useful traits, and helps to make the language more -consistent. - -## Tokens - -Input is divided into a series of whitespace delimited tokens. -Each of these is then processed individually. There are no -parsing words in RETRO. - -Tokens may have a single character *prefix*, which RETRO will -use to decide how to process the token. - -## Prefixes - -Prefixes are single characters added to the start of a token -to guide the compiler. The use of these is a major way in -which RETRO differs from traditional Forth. - -When a token is passed to `interpret`, RETRO first takes the -intitial character and looks to see if there is a word that -matches this. If so, it will pass the rest of the token to -that word to handle. - -In a traditional Forth, the interpret process is something -like: - - get token - is token in the dictionary? - yes: - is it immediate? - yes: call the word. - no: are we interpreting? - yes: call the word - no: compile a call to the word - no: - is it a number? - yes: are we interpreting? - yes: push the number to the stack - no: compile the number as a literal - no: report an error ("not found") - -In RETRO, the interpret process is basically: - - get token - does the first character match a `prefix:` word? - yes: pass the token to the prefix handler - no: is token a word in the dictionary? - yes: push the XT to the stack and call the - class handler - no: report an error ("not found") - -All of the actual logic for how to deal with tokens is moved -to the individual prefix handlers, and the logic for handling -words is moved to word class handlers. - -This means that prefixes are used for a lot of things. Numbers? -Handled by a `#` prefix. Strings? Use the `'` prefix. Comments? -Use `(`. Making a new word? Use the `:` prefix. - -The major prefixes are: - - | Prefix | Used For | - | ------ | ----------------------------- | - | @ | Fetch from variable | - | ! | Store into variable | - | & | Pointer to named item | - | # | Numbers | - | $ | ASCII characters | - | ' | Strings | - | ( | Comments | - | : | Define a word | - -The individual prefixes will be covered in more detail in the -later chapters on working with different data types. - -## Word Classes - -Word classes are words which take a pointer and do something -with it. These are covered in detail in their own chapter, -but essentially they decide *how* to execute or compile specific -types of words. - - -# Additional Tools - -In addition to the core `retro` binary, the `bin` directory -will contain a few other tools. - -## retro - -This is the main RETRO binary. - -## retro-describe - -This is a program that looks up entries in the Glossary. - -At the command line, you can use it like: - - retro-describe s:for-each - -You can pass multiple word names to it: - - retro-describe s:for-each nl d:words - -## retro-embedimage - -This is a program which generates a C file with the ngaImage -contents. It's used when building `retro`. - - retro-embedimage ngaImage - -The output is written to stdout; redirect it as needed. - -## retro-extend - -This is a program which compiles code into the ngaImage. -It's used when building `retro` and when you want to make a -standalone image with custom additions. - -Example command line: - - retro-extend ngaImage example/rot13.forth - -Pass the image name as the first argument, and then file names -as susequent ones. Do *not* use this for things relying on I/O -apart from the basic console output as it doesn't emulate other -devices. If you need to load in things that rely on using the -optional I/O devices, see the **Advanced Builds** chapter. - -## retro-muri - -This is the assembler for Nga. It's used to build the initial -RETRO kernel and can be used by other tools as well. - - retro-muri rx.muri - -## retro-tags and retro-locate - -These tools are intended to be used together. The first tool, -`retro-tags`, will recursively scan the current directory for -RETRO source files and extract the locations of words defined -in them. These will be written to disk in a `tags` file, using -the standard ctags format. - -`retro-locate` takes a word name, and returns the location(s) -where it is defined. This requires a `tags` file to be present. - -Create the `tags` file: - - retro-tags - -Locate a word: - - retro-locate n:square - -## retro-unu - -This is the literate source extraction tool for RETRO. It -is used in building `retro`. - -Example usage: - - retro-unu literate/RetroForth.md - -Output is written to stdout; redirect as neeeded. - -# The Optional Retro Compiler - -In addition to the base system, users of RETRO on Unix hosts -with ELF executables can build and use the `retro-compiler` -to generate turnkey executables. - -## Requirements - -- Unix host -- ELF executable support -- `objcpy` in the $PATH - -## Building - - make bin/retro-compiler - -## Installing - -Copy `bin/retro-compiler` to somewhere in your $PATH. - -## Using - -`retro-compiler` takes two arguments: the source file to -compile and the name of the word to use as the main entry -point. - -Example: - -Given a `hello.forth`: - - ~~~ - :hello 'Hello_World! s:put nl ; - ~~~ - -Use: - - retro-compiler hello.forth hello - -The compiler will generate an `a.out` file which you can -then rename. - -## Known Limitations - -This does not provide the scripting support for command line -arguments that the standard `retro` interface offers. - -A copy of `objcopy` needs to be in the path for compilation -to work. - -The current working directory must be writable. - -This only supports hosts using ELF executables. - -The output file name is fixed to `a.out`. - -RETRO(1) General Commands Manual RETRO(1) - -RETRO - retro - a modern, pragmatic forth development system - -SYNOPSIS - retro [-h] [-i] [-t] [-f filename] [-u filename] [-r filename] - [filename script-args] - -DESCRIPTION - RETRO is a modern, pragmatic Forth drawing influences from many sources. - It's clean, elegant, tiny, and easy to grasp and adapt to various uses. - - retro is the main interface for interacting with Retro. It provides both - an interactive and a scripting model. - -OPTIONS - -h Display a help screen. - - -i Start Retro in interactive mode. - - -s Start Retro in interactive mode and supress the startup message. - - -t Run any test blocks in the loaded files. - - -f filename - Run any code blocks in the specified file. - - -u filename - Load and use the specified image file rather than the integral - one. - - -r filename - Load and run the code in the specified image file rather than - the integral one. - - filename script-args - Run code blocks in a single file. Pass script-args to the code - being run. - -AUTHORS - Charles Childers - -OpenBSD 6.4 Setember 2019 OpenBSD 6.4 - -RETRO-DESCRIBE(1) General Commands Manual RETRO-DESCRIBE(1) - -RETRO-DESCRIBE - retro-describe - a modern, pragmatic forth development system - -SYNOPSIS - retro-describe wordname [additional wordnames] - -DESCRIPTION - RETRO is a modern, pragmatic Forth drawing influences from many sources. - It's clean, elegant, tiny, and easy to grasp and adapt to various uses. - - retro-describe is a tool for looking up the description and stack - comments for words in the core language and extensions. It will write - output to stdout. - -AUTHORS - Charles Childers - -OpenBSD 6.4 May 2019 OpenBSD 6.4 - -RETRO-DOCUMENT(1) General Commands Manual RETRO-DOCUMENT(1) - -RETRO-DOCUMENT - retro-document - a modern, pragmatic forth development system - -SYNOPSIS - retro-document filename - -DESCRIPTION - RETRO is a modern, pragmatic Forth drawing influences from many sources. - It's clean, elegant, tiny, and easy to grasp and adapt to various uses. - - retro-document is a tool for generating a listing of the descriptions and - stack comments for all standard word used in a source file. It will write - output to stdout. - -AUTHORS - Charles Childers - -OpenBSD 6.4 May 2019 OpenBSD 6.4 - -RETRO-EMBEDIMAGE(1) General Commands Manual RETRO-EMBEDIMAGE(1) - -RETRO-EMBEDIMAGE - retro-embedimage - a modern, pragmatic forth development system - -SYNOPSIS - retro-embedimage [filename] - -DESCRIPTION - RETRO is a modern, pragmatic Forth drawing influences from many sources. - It's clean, elegant, tiny, and easy to grasp and adapt to various uses. - - retro-embedimage loads the specified image (or `ngaImage` from the - current directory if none is specified). It converts this into C code - that can be compiled for inclusion in a RETRO executable. It will write - the output to stdout. - -AUTHORS - Charles Childers - -OpenBSD 6.4 February 2019 OpenBSD 6.4 - -RETRO-EXTEND(1) General Commands Manual RETRO-EXTEND(1) - -RETRO-EXTEND - retro-extend - a modern, pragmatic forth development system - -SYNOPSIS - retro-extend image filename [filenames] - -DESCRIPTION - RETRO is a modern, pragmatic Forth drawing influences from many sources. - It's clean, elegant, tiny, and easy to grasp and adapt to various uses. - - retro-extend is a tool to load additional code into an image file. It - takes the name of an image file and one or more source files to load into - the image. After completion the image file will be updated with the - changes. - - -CAVETS - retro-extend only emulates the minimal console output device. If the - source files require additional I/O to be present, the extend process - will likely fail to work correctly. - - -AUTHORS - Charles Childers - -OpenBSD 6.4 February 2019 OpenBSD 6.4 - -RETRO-LOCATE(1) General Commands Manual RETRO-LOCATE(1) - -RETRO-LOCATE - retro-locate - a modern, pragmatic forth development system - -SYNOPSIS - retro-locate wordname - -DESCRIPTION - RETRO is a modern, pragmatic Forth drawing influences from many sources. - It's clean, elegant, tiny, and easy to grasp and adapt to various uses. - - retro-locate searches the tags file generated by retro-tags for the - desired word name. Any matches are displayed, along with the line number. - -AUTHORS - Charles Childers - -OpenBSD 6.6 January 2020 OpenBSD 6.6 - -RETRO-MURI(1) General Commands Manual RETRO-MURI(1) - -RETRO-MURI - retro-muri - a modern, pragmatic forth development system - -SYNOPSIS - retro-muri filename - -DESCRIPTION - RETRO is a modern, pragmatic Forth drawing influences from many sources. - It's clean, elegant, tiny, and easy to grasp and adapt to various uses. - - retro-muri is an assembler for Nga, the virtual machine at the heart of - Retro. It is used to build the image file containing the actual Retro - language. - - This will extract the code blocks in the specified file and generate an - image file named `ngaImage`. - -AUTHORS - Charles Childers - -OpenBSD 6.4 February 2019 OpenBSD 6.4 - -RETRO-TAGS(1) General Commands Manual RETRO-TAGS(1) - -RETRO-TAGS - retro-tags - a modern, pragmatic forth development system - -SYNOPSIS - retro-tags - -DESCRIPTION - RETRO is a modern, pragmatic Forth drawing influences from many sources. - It's clean, elegant, tiny, and easy to grasp and adapt to various uses. - - retro-tags is a tool for extracting code from fenced blocks in literate - sources and generating a tags file compatible with ctags. - -AUTHORS - Charles Childers - -OpenBSD 6.4 August 2019 OpenBSD 6.4 - -# Naming Conventions - -Word names in RETRO generally follow the following conventions. - -## General Guidelines - -* Readability is important -* Be consistent -* Don't use a prefix as the first character of a name -* Don't use underscores in word names -* Use short names for indices -* Word names start with a `-` for "not" -* Words returning a flag end in ? - -## Typical Format - -The word names will generally follow a form like: - - [namespace:]name - -The `namespace:` is optional, but recommended for consistency -with the rest of the system and to make it easier to identify -related words. - -## Case - -Word names are lowercase, with a dash (-) for compound names. - - hello - drop-pair - s:for-each - -Variables use TitleCase, with no dash between compound names. - - Base - Heap - StringBuffers - -Constants are UPPERCASE, with a dash (-) for compound names. - - TRUE - FALSE - f:PI - MAX-STRING-LENGTH - -## Namespaces - -Words are grouped into broad namespaces by attaching a short -prefix string to the start of a name. - -The common namespaces are: - - | Prefix | Contains | - | ------- | ------------------------------------------------------ | - | a: | Words operating on simple arrays | - | ASCII: | ASCII character constants for control characters | - | buffer: | Words for operating on a simple linear LIFO buffer | - | c: | Words for operating on ASCII character data | - | class: | Contains class handlers for words | - | d: | Words operating on the Dictionary | - | err: | Words for handling errors | - | io: | General I/O words | - | n: | Words operating on numeric data | - | prefix: | Contains prefix handlers | - | s: | Words operating on string data | - | v: | Words operating on variables | - | file: | File I/O words | - | f: | Floating Point words | - | unix: | Unix system call words | - -## Tips - -### Don't Start Names With Prefix Characters - -Avoid using a prefix as the first character of a word name. RETRO -will look for prefixes first, this will prevent direct use of -the work in question. - -To find a list of prefix characters, do: - - 'prefix: d:words-with - -### Don't Use Underscores - -Underscores in strings are replaced by spaces. This is problematic, -especially with variables. Consider: - - 'test_name var - #188 !test_name - -In this, the string for the name is converted to "test name". The -store in the second line will not add the space, so resolves to an -incorrect address. - -I personally recommend avoiding the use of underscores in any word -names. - -# The Return Stack - -RETRO has two stacks. The primary one is used to pass data -beween words. The second one primarily holds return addresses. - -Each time a word is called, the next address is pushed to -the return stack. - -# Stack Diagrams - -Most words in RETRO have a stack comment. These look like: - - (-) - (nn-n) - -As with all comments, a stack comment begins with `(` and -should end with a `)`. There are two parts to the comment. -On the left side of the `-` is what the word *consumes*. On -the right is what it *leaves*. - -RETRO uses a short notation, with one character per value -taken or left. In general, the following symbols represent -certain types of values. - - | Notation | Represents | - | ------------------- | ----------------------- | - | b, n, m, o, x, y, z | generic numeric values | - | s | string | - | v | variable | - | p, a | pointers | - | q | quotation | - | d | dictionary header | - | f | `TRUE` or `FALSE` flag. | - -In the case of something like `(xyz-m)`, RETRO expects z to be -on the top of the stack, with y below it and x below the y -value. And after execution, a single value (m) will be left on -the stack. - -Words with no stack effect have a comment of (-) - -# Working With Arrays - -RETRO offers a number of words for operating on statically sized -arrays. - -## Namespace - -The words operating on arrays are kept in an `a:` namespace. - -## Creating Arrays - -The easiest way to create an array is to wrap the values in a -`{` and `}` pair: - -``` -{ #1 #2 #3 #4 } -{ 'this 'is 'an 'array 'of 'strings } -{ 'this 'is 'a 'mixed 'array #1 #2 #3 } -``` - -You can also make an array from a quotation which returns -values and the number of values to store in the a: - -``` -[ #1 #2 #3 #3 ] a:counted-results -[ #1 #2 #3 #3 ] a:make -``` - -## Accessing Elements - -You can access a specific value with `a:th` and `fetch` or -`store`: - -``` -{ #1 #2 #3 #4 } #3 a:th fetch -``` - -## Find The Length - -Use `a:length` to find the size of the array. - -``` -{ #1 #2 #3 #4 } a:length -``` - -## Duplicate - -Use `a:dup` to make a copy of an a: - -``` -{ #1 #2 #3 #4 } a:dup -``` - -## Filtering - -RETRO provides `a:filter` which extracts matching values -from an array. This is used like: - -``` -{ #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 } [ n:even? ] a:filter -``` - -The quote will be passed each value in the array and should -return TRUE or FALSE. Values that lead to TRUE will be collected -into a new array. - -## Mapping - -`a:map` applies a quotation to each item in an array and -constructs a new array from the returned values. - -Example: - -``` -{ #1 #2 #3 } [ #10 * ] a:map -``` - -## Reduce - -`a:reduce` takes an array, a starting value, and a quote. It -executes the quote once for each item in the array, passing the -item and the value to the quote. The quote should consume both -and return a new value. - -``` -{ #1 #2 #3 } #0 [ + ] a:reduce -``` - -## Search - -RETRO provides `a:contains?` and `a:contains-string?` -to search an array for a value (either a number or string) and -return either TRUE or FALSE. - -``` -#100 { #1 #2 #3 } a:contains? -'test { 'abc 'def 'test 'ghi } a:contains-string? -``` - -## Implementation - -In memory, an array is a count followed by the values. As an -example, if you have an array: - - { #10 #20 #30 } - -In memory this would be setup as: - - | Offset | Value | - | ------ | ----- | - | 000 | 3 | - | 001 | 10 | - | 002 | 20 | - | 003 | 30 | - -You can construct one on the fly by keeping a pointer to -`here` and using `,` to place the values. E.g., - - here [ #3 , #10 , #20 , #30 , ] dip - -An example of this can be seen in this excerpt from an example -(*example/Primes.forth*): - - :create-set (-a) - here #3000 , #2 #3002 [ dup , n:inc ] times drop ; - -# Working With Assembly Language - -RETRO runs on a virtual machine called Nga. It provides a -standard assembler for this called *Muri*. - -Muri is a simple, multipass model that's not fancy, but -suffices for RETRO's needs. - -## Assembling A Standalone File - -A small example (*test.muri*) - - ~~~ - i liju.... - r main - : c:put - i liiire.. - i 0 - : main - i lilica.. - d 97 - i liju.... - r main - ~~~ - -Assembling it: - - retro-muri test.muri - -So breaking down: Muri extracts the assembly code blocks to -assemble, then proceeds to do the assembly. Each source line -starts with a directive, followed by a space, and then ending -with a value. - -The directives are: - - : value is a label - i value is an instruction bundle - d value is a numeric value - r value is a reference - s value is a string to inline - -Instructions for Nga are provided as bundles. Each memory -location can store up to four instructions. And each instruction -gets a two character identifier. - -From the list of instructions: - - 0 nop 5 push 10 ret 15 fetch 20 div 25 zret - 1 lit 6 pop 11 eq 16 store 21 and 26 halt - 2 dup 7 jump 12 neq 17 add 22 or 27 ienum - 3 drop 8 call 13 lt 18 sub 23 xor 28 iquery - 4 swap 9 ccall 14 gt 19 mul 24 shift 29 iinvoke - -This reduces to: - - 0 .. 5 pu 10 re 15 fe 20 di 25 zr - 1 li 6 po 11 eq 16 st 21 an 26 ha - 2 du 7 ju 12 ne 17 ad 22 or 27 ie - 3 dr 8 ca 13 lt 18 su 23 xo 28 iq - 4 sw 9 cc 14 gt 19 mu 24 sh 29 ii - -Most are just the first two letters of the instruction name. I -use `..` instead of `no` for `NOP`, and the first letter of -each I/O instruction name. So a bundle may look like: - - dumure.. - -(This would correspond to `dup multiply return nop`). - -## Runtime Assembler - -RETRO also has a runtime variation of Muri that can be used -when you need to generate more optimal code. So one can write: - - :n:square dup * ; - -Or: - - :n:square \dumure.. ; - -The second one will be faster, as the entire definition is one -bundle, which reduces memory reads and decoding by 2/3. - -Doing this is less readable, so I only recommend doing so after -you have finalized working RETRO level code and determined the -best places to optimize. - -The runtime assembler has the following directives: - - i value is an instruction bundle - d value is a numeric value - r value is a reference - -Additionally, in the runtime assembler, these are reversed: - - 'dudumu.. i - -Instead of: - - i dudumu.. - -The runtime assembler also provides three prefixes for use in -inlining machine code into a definition. These are: - - \ Treat token as an assembly sequence - ` Treat token as a numeric value - ^ Treat token as a reference - -E.g., instead of doing something like: - - :n:square as{ 'dumu.... i }as ; - :test as{ 'lilica.... i #22 d 'n:square r }as ; - -Just write: - - :n:square \dumu.... ; - :test \lilica.. `22 ^n:square ; - -# Working With a Buffer - -RETRO provides words for operating on a linear memory area. -This can be useful in building strings or custom data -structures. - -## Namespace - -Words operating on the buffer are kept in the `buffer:` -namespace. - -## Implementation - -A buffer is a linear sequence of memory. The buffer words -provide a means of incrementally storing and retrieving -values from it. - -The buffer words keep track of the start and end of the -buffer. They also ensure that an `ASCII:NULL` is written -after the last value, which make using them for string -data easy. - -## Limitations - -Only one buffer can be active at a time. RETRO provides a -`buffer:preserve` combinator to allow using a second one -before returning to the prior one. - -## Set The Active Buffer - -To set a buffer as the active one use `buffer:set`. This takes -an address. - -The buffer will be assumed to be empty. The inital value will -be set to ASCII:NULL. - -## Add Value - -Use `buffer:add` to append a value to the buffer. This takes -a single value and will also add an ASCII:NULL after the end -of the buffer. - -## Fetch Last Value - -To return the last value in the buffer you can use `buffer:get`. -This removes the value and sets an ASCII:NULL in the memory -location the returned value occupied. - -## Get Data About The Buffer - -RETRO provides `buffer:start` to get the initial address in -the buffer, `buffer:end` to get the last address (ignoring the -ASCII:NULL), and `buffer:size` to return the number of values -in the buffer. - -## Reset - -You can reset a buffer to the empty state using `buffer:empty`. - -## Example - -To begin, create a memory region to use as a buffer. - -``` -'Test d:create #1025 allot -``` - -Then you can set this as the current buffer: - -``` -&Test buffer:set -``` - -When a buffer is set, the vocabulary sets an internal -index to the first address in it. This will be -incremented when you add data and decremented when you -remove data. - -Let's add some stuff using `buffer:add`: - -``` -#100 buffer:add -#200 buffer:add -#300 buffer:add -``` - -And then retreive the values: - -``` -buffer:get n:put nl -buffer:get n:put nl -buffer:get n:put nl -``` - -You can remove all values using `buffer:empty`: - -``` -#100 buffer:add -#200 buffer:add -#300 buffer:add -buffer:empty -``` - -And ask the buffer how many items it contains: - -``` -buffer:size n:put nl -#100 buffer:add -#200 buffer:add -#300 buffer:add -buffer:size n:put nl -buffer:empty -``` - -The other functions are `buffer:start`, which returns -the address of the buffer, `buffer:end`, which returns -the address of the last value, and `buffer:preserve`. -The first is easy to demo: - -``` -buffer:start Test eq? n:put nl -``` - -The last one is useful. Only one buffer is ever active -at a given time. The `buffer:preserve` combinator lets -you execute a word, saving and restoring the current -buffer indexes. So the word could assign and use a new -buffer and this will reset the previous one after -control returns. - -There are a few notes that need to be considered. The -preserve combinator saves the start and current index -but *not* the contents. If the word you call uses the -same buffer, the contents will remain altered. - -Finally, the buffer words have one interesting trait: -they store an ASCII NULL after adding each item to the -buffer. This lets one use them to build strings easily. - -``` -Test buffer:set -$h buffer:add -$e buffer:add -$l buffer:add -$l buffer:add -$o buffer:add -$, buffer:add -#32 buffer:add -$w buffer:add -$o buffer:add -$r buffer:add -$l buffer:add -$d buffer:add -buffer:start s:put nl -``` - -# Working With Characters - -RETRO provides words for working with ASCII characters. - -## Prefix - -Character constants are returned using the `$` prefix. - -## Namespace - -Words operating on characters are in the `c:` namespace. - -## Classification - -RETRO provides a number of words to determine if a character -fits into predefined groups. - -The primary words for this are: - -* `c:consonant?` -* `c:digit?` -* `c:letter?` -* `c:lowercase?` -* `c:uppercase?` -* `c:visible?` -* `c:vowel?` -* `c:whitespace?` - -There are also corresponding "not" forms: - -* `c:-consonant?` -* `c:-digit?` -* `c:-lowercase?` -* `c:-uppercase?` -* `c:-visible?` -* `c:-vowel?` -* `c:-whitespace?` - -All of these take a character and return either a `TRUE` or -`FALSE` flag. - -## Conversions - -A few words are provided to convert case. Each takes a character -and returns the modified character. - -* `c:to-lower` -* `c:to-number` -* `c:to-upper` -* `c:toggle-case` - -RETRO also has `c:to-string`, which takes a character and -creates a new temporary string with the character. - -## I/O - -Characters can be displayed using `c:put`. - -``` -$a c:put -``` - -With the default system on BSD, Linux, and macOS (and other -Unix style hosts), `c:get` is provided to read input. This -may be buffered, depending on the host. - -# Defining Words - -Words are named functions. To start a word, preceed it's name -with a colon. Follow this by the definition, and end with a -semicolon. - -E.g., - - :do-nothing ; - :square dup * ; - -# Working With The Dictionary - -The Dictionary is a linked list containing the dictionary -headers. - -## Namespace - -Words operating on the dictionary are in the `d:` namespace. - -## Variables - -`Dictionary` is a variable holding a pointer to the most recent -header. - -## Header Structure - -Each entry follows the following structure: - - Offset Contains - ------ --------------------------- - 0000 Link to Prior Header - 0001 Link to XT - 0002 Link to Class Handler - 0003+ Word name (null terminated) - -RETRO provides words for accessing the fields in a portable -manner. It's recommended to use these to allow for future -revision of the header structure. - -## Accessing Fields - -Given a pointer to a header, you can use `d:xt`, `d:class`, -and `d:name` to access the address of each specific field. -There is no `d:link`, as the link will always be the first -field. - -## Shortcuts For The Latest Header - -RETRO provides several words for operating on the most recent -header. - -`d:last` returns a pointer to the latest header. `d:last.xt` -will give the contents of the `d:xt` field for the latest -header. There are also `d:last.class` and `d:last.name`. - -## Adding Headers - -Two words exist for making new headers. The easy one is -`d:create`. This takes a string for the name and makes a -new header with the class set to `class:data` and the XT -field pointing to `here`. - -Example: - -``` -'Base d:create -``` - -The other is `d:add-header`. This takes a string, a pointer -to the class handler, and a pointer for the XT field and -builds a new header using these. - -Example: - -``` -'Base &class:data #10000 d:add-header -``` - -## Searching - -RETRO provides two words for searching the dictionary. - -`d:lookup` takes a string and tries to find it in the -dictionary. It will return a pointer to the dictionary header -or a value of zero if the word was not found. - -`d:lookup-xt` takes a pointer and will return the dictionary -header that has this as the `d:xt` field, or zero if no match -is found. - -## Iteration - -You can use the `d:for-each` combinator to iterate over all -entries in the dictionary. For instance, to display the names -of all words: - -``` -[ d:name s:put sp ] d:for-each -``` - -For each entry, this combinator will push a pointer to the -entry to the stack and call the quotation. - -## Listing Words - -Most Forth systems provide WORDS for listing the names of all -words in the dictionary. RETRO does as well, but this is named -`d:words`. - -This isn't super useful as looking through several hundred -names is annoying. RETRO also provides `d:words-with` to help -in filtering the results. - -Example: - -``` -'class: d:words-with -``` - - -# Working With Floating Point - -Some RETRO systems include support for floating point numbers. -When present, this is built over the system `libm` using the -C `double` type. - -Floating point values are typically 64 bit IEEE 754 double -precision (1 bit for the sign, 11 bits for the exponent, and -the remaining 52 bits for the value), i.e. 15 decimal digits -of precision. - -## Prefix - -Floating point numbers start with a `.` - -Examples: - - Token Value - .1 1.0 - .0.5 0.5 - .-.4 -0.4 - .1.3 1.3 - -## Namespace - -Floating point words are in the `f:` namespace. There is also -a related `e:` namespace for *encoded values*, which allows -storing of floats in standard memory. - -## Operation - -Floating point values exist on a separate stack, and are bigger -than the standard memory cells, so can not be directly stored -and fetched from memory. - -The floating point system also provides an alternate stack that -can be used to temporarily store values. - -The following words exist for arranging values on the floating -point stack. These are direct analogs to the non-prefiexd words -for dealing with the data stack. - -- `f:nip` -- `f:over` -- `f:depth` -- `f:drop` -- `f:drop-pair` -- `f:dup` -- `f:dup-pair` -- `f:dump-stack` -- `f:tuck` -- `f:swap` -- `f:rot` - -For the secondary floating point stack, the following words are -provided: - -- `f:push` -- `f:pop` -- `f:adepth` -- `f:dump-astack` - -## Constants - - | Name | Returns | - | -------- | ----------------- | - | `f:E` | Euler's number | - | `f:-INF` | Negative infinity | - | `f:INF` | Positive infinity | - | `f:NAN` | Not a Number | - | `f:PI` | PI | - -## Comparisons - -The basic set of comparators are the same as those for -operating on integers. These are: - -- `f:-eq?` -- `f:between?` -- `f:eq?` -- `f:gt?` -- `f:lt?` -- `f:negative?` -- `f:positive?` -- `f:case` - -There are also a few additions for comparing to special values -like infinity and NaN. - -- `f:-inf?` -- `f:inf?` -- `f:nan?` - -## Basic Math - -- `f:*` -- `f:+` -- `f:-` -- `f:/` -- `f:abs` -- `f:floor` -- `f:inc` -- `f:limit` -- `f:max` -- `f:min` -- `f:negate` -- `f:power` -- `f:ceiling` -- `f:dec` -- `f:log` -- `f:sqrt` -- `f:square` -- `f:round` -- `f:sign` -- `f:signed-sqrt` -- `f:signed-square` - -## Geometry - -RETRO provides a small number of words for doing geometric -related calculations. - -| Word | Returns | -| -------- | ------------ | -| `f:acos` | arc cosine | -| `f:asin` | arc sine | -| `f:atan` | arc tangent | -| `f:cos` | cosine | -| `f:sin` | sine | -| `f:tan` | tangent | - -## Storage and Retrieval - -By leveraging the encoded value functions, RETRO is able to -allow storage of floating point values in memory. This does -have a tradeoff in accuracy as the memory cells are considerably -smaller than a full floating point size. - -You can use `f:fetch` to fetch a floating point value and -`f:store` to store one. - -If you need more precision, try Kiyoshi Yoneda's FloatVar -example (`example/FloatVar.forth`), which includes words to -store and retrieve values using multiple cells. - -- `f:to-number` -- `f:to-string` - -## I/O - -The floating point vocabulary has a single I/O word, `f:put`, -for the display of floating point numbers. - -## Encoded Values - -RETRO provides a means of encoding and decoding floating point -values into standard integer cells. This is based on the paper -"Encoding floating point values to shorter integers" by Kiyoshi -Yoneda and Charles Childers. - -- `f:E1` -- `f:to-e` -- `e:-INF` -- `e:-inf?` -- `e:INF` -- `e:MAX` -- `e:MIN` -- `e:NAN` -- `e:clip` -- `e:inf?` -- `e:max?` -- `e:min?` -- `e:n?` -- `e:nan?` -- `e:put` -- `e:to-f` -- `e:zero?` - -# Working With Files - -On Unix and Windows systems RETRO provides a set of words for -working with files. As a pragmatic choice these are mostly -modeled after the file functions in libc. - -The file words are in the `file:` namespace. - -## File Access Modes - -You can open a file for various operations. The functionality -allowed depends on the file access mode. Valid modes in RETRO -are: - - file:A Open for appending; file pointer set to end of file - file:R Open for reading; file pointer set to start of file - file:R+ Open for reading and writing - file:W Open for writing - -## Opening A File - -To open a file, pass the file name and a file mode to `file:open`. - - '/etc/motd file:R file:open - -On a successful open this will return a file handle greater than -zero. - -Additionally, RETRO provides a few other forms for opening files. - -To open a file for reading: - - '/etc/motd file:open-for-reading - -This will return the size of the file (as NOS) and the file handle -(as TOS). - -To open a file for writing: - - '/tmp/test file:open-for-writing - -This returns the file handle. - -To open a file for append operations: - - '/tmp/test file:open-for-append - -As with `file:open-for-reading`, this returns both the size of -the file and the file handle. - -## Closing A File - -To close a file, pass the file handle to `file:close`. - - '/etc/motd file:A file:open file:close - -## Reading From A File - -To read a byte from an open file, pass the file handle to the -`file:read` word. - - @FID file:read n:put - -To read a line from a file, pass the file handle to the word -`file:read-line`. - - @FID file:read-line s:put - -The line is read into a temporary string buffer. Move the -text to a safe place if you aren't using it quickly or if -the length of the line is bigger than the size of a temporary -string. - -## Writing To A File - -To write a byte to a file, pass it and the file handle to -`file:write`. - - $h @FID file:write - $e @FID file:write - $l @FID file:write - $l @FID file:write - $o @FID file:write - -Though cells are 32 or 64 bits in size, only the byte value will -be written to the file. - -## Deleting Files - -You can delete a file by passing the file name to `file:delete`. - - /tmp/test file:delete - -## Check For File Existance - -Use `file:exists?` to detect the existance of a file. Pass it a -file name and it will return `TRUE` if existing or `FALSE` if -it does not. - - '/etc/motd file:exists? - -This will also return `TRUE` if the filename is a directory. - -## Flush Caches - -Use `file:flush` to flush the system caches for a file. Pass a -file handle to this. - - @FID file:flush - -## Seek A Position Within A File - -You can use `file:seek` to move the internal file pointer -for a given file. Pass this the new location and a file. - - #100 @FID file:seek - -The location for the file pointer is a fixed offset from the -start of the file, not a relative offset. - -## Get The Current Position Within A File - -To find the current value of the file pointer within a file -just pass the file handle to `file:tell`. - - @FID file:tell - -This returns a number that is the number of bytes into the file -that the file pointer is currently at. - -## Determine The Size Of A File - -Use `file:size` to return the size of a file. Pass this a file -handle and it will return the size of a file, or 0 if empty. If -the file is a directory, it returns -1. - - @FID file:size - -## Reading An Entire File - -If you want to read an entire file into memory you can use -`file:slurp`. This takes the starting address of a memory -region and the name of the file. - - here '/etc/motd file:slurp - -Take care that the memory buffer is large enough for the file -being read or you will run into problems. - -## Writing A String To A File - -If you have a string that you want to write to a file, replacing -any existing contents, you can use `file:spew`. This takes the -string to write and a file name. - - 'hello_world '/tmp/test.txt file:spew - -## Iterating Over A File, Line By Line - -You can easily iterate over each line in a file using the word -`file:for-each-line`. This will take a file name and a quote, -read each line into a temporary string, then pass this string to -the quote. - - '/etc/motd [ s:put nl ] file:for-each-line - -# Loops - -RETRO provides several words for creating loops. - -## Unconditional Loops - -An unconditional loop begins with `repeat` and ends with `again`. - - :test repeat #1 n:put sp again ; - test - -Unconditional loops must be inside a definition or quote. To exit -one of these, use `0;`, `-if;` or `if;`. - - :test #100 repeat 0; dup n:put sp n:dec again ; - test - - :test #100 repeat dup #50 eq? [ 'done! s:put nl ] if; n:dec again ; - test - -You can also achieve this via recursion: - - :test 0; dup n:put sp n:dec test ; - #100 test - -Be careful with recursion as the virtual machine will have a limited -amount of space for the address stack and recursing too many times -can cause a stack overflow. - -## Conditional Loops - -There are two conditional looping combinators: `while` and `until`. -Both take a quote and execute it, checking a returned flag to decide -when to stop running. - - #0 [ dup n:put sp n:inc dup #10 eq? ] until - #10 [ dup n:put sp n:dec dup n:-zero? ] while - -## Counted Loops - -There are two combinators for counted loops. These are `times` and -`indexed-times`. - - #0 #10 [ dup n:put sp n:inc ] times nl - #10 [ I n:put sp ] indexed-times - -The `indexed-times` provides an index via the `I`, `J`, and -`K` words. `I` will be the index of the current loop, with `J` and -`K` being the indexes of the next two older loops. - -The loop indexes can be accessed outside the loop body: - - :display I n:square n:put sp ; - :squares [ display ] indexed-times nl ; - #100 squares - -## Tradeoffs - -The unconditional loop form is more efficient as it's just a -simple jump operation. The `times` counted loops are a little -slower, but can be cleaner and more readable in many cases. The -`indexed-times` form is significantly slower than the other -two forms. - -# Working With Numbers - -Numbers in RETRO are signed integers. - -## Token Prefix - -All numbers start with a `#` prefix. - -## Namespace - -Most words operating on numbers are in the `n:` namespace. - -## Range of Values - -A default RETRO system with 32 bit cells provides a range of --2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647. For 64 bit systems, the range -will be -9,223,372,036,854,775,807 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,806. - -You can check the range your VM and image support using: - - n:MIN - n:MAX - -These will return the limits for your system. - -## Comparisons - -RETRO provides a number of comparison words for numeric values. - -The basic comparators are: - - -eq? - eq? - lt? - lteq? - gt? - gteq? - -Additionally RETRO also provides: - - n:-zero? - n:between? - n:even? - n:negative? - n:odd? - n:positive? - n:strictly-positive? - n:zero? - -## Basic Operations - - + - - - * - / - mod - /mod - n:abs - n:dec - n:inc - n:limit - n:max - n:min - n:negate - n:pow - n:sqrt - n:square - -## Conversions - -You can convert a number to a string with `n:to-string` or -to a floating point value with `n:to-float`. - - #123 n:to-float f:put - - #123 n:to-string s:put - -## Display - -To display a number, use `n:put`. - - #123 n:put - -# Working With Pointers - -## Prefix - -Pointers are returned by the `&` prefix. - -## Examples - -``` -'Base var -&Base fetch -#10 &Base store - -#10 &n:inc call -``` - -## Notes - -The use of `&` to get a pointer to a data structure (with a -word class of `class:data`) is not required. I like to use it -anyway as it makes my intent a little clearer. - -Pointers are useful with combinators. Consider: - -``` -:abs dup n:negative? [ n:negate ] if ; -``` - -Since the target quote body is a single word, it is more -efficient to use a pointer instead: - -``` -:abs dup n:negative? &n:negate if ; -``` - -The advantages are speed (saves a level of call/return by -avoiding the quotation) and size (for the same reason). -This may be less readable though, so consider the balance -of performance to readability when using this approach. - -# Quotations - -Quotes are anonymous functions. RETRO uses these as the basis for -executable flow control and combinatorial logic. - -## Using Quotations - -To make a quotation, surround the code with square brackets. E.g., - - #1 #2 eq? [ 'No_match s:put nl ] -if - -Quotes can be nested: - - [ #3 [ #4 ] dip ] call - -After creation, a pointer to the quotation is left on the stack -(or is compiled into the current definition). - -## Combinators - -Words operating on quotations are called combinators; these are -discussed in *Using Combinators*. - -## Implementation - -A quotation is compiled as: - - ... code before quotation ... - i liju.... (if_compiling_only) - d address after quotation (if_compiling_only) - ... code for quotation - i re...... (this_is_where_the_quote_ends) - i li...... - d address of code for quotation - ... code after quotation .... - -## Other Notes - -Quotations are used heavily in RETRO. They give the source a -feel that's different from traditional Forth, and allow for -a more consistent syntax. - -For instance, in a traditional Forth, you might have some -conditionals: - - IF ... THEN - IF ... ELSE ... THEN - IF ... EXIT THEN - -RETRO uses conditional combinators for these: - - [ ... ] if - [ ... ] [ ... ] choose - [ ... ] if; - -Or loops: - - FOR ... NEXT - -Is replaced by: - - [ ... ] times - -This can also extend to stack flow. Sequences like: - - >R ... >R - DUP >R ... >R - -Become: - - [ ... ] dip - [ ... ] sip - -And forms like: - - 1 2 3 * swap 3 * swap - -Can be replaced with a combinator like: - - #1 #2 [ #3 * ] bi@ - -While there is a different set of words to learn, I find that -overall there's less noise from low level stack shuffling words -and the added consistency with regards to overall syntax has -been nice as I was never fond of the multiple forms that existed -in traditional Forth. - -# Sockets - -On Unix hosts, RETRO provides an optional set of words for using -network sockets. - -## Create a Socket - -To create a new socket, just run: - - socket:create - -This will return a socket handle. - -## Bind To A Port - -To bind to a port, pass the port number and socket handle -to `socket:bind`. The port should be a string. This will return -0 if successful, -1 if not successful, and an error code. - - '9998 @Sock socket:bind - -## Configure To Allow Incoming Connections - -To prepare a socket for incoming connections use socket:listen. This -will take a backlog count and a socket handle. It returns a flag -(0 success, -1 failed) and an error code. - - #3 @Sock socket:listen - -## Accept Connections - -To accept connections pass the socket handle to `socket:accept`. -This returns a new socket for the connection and an error code. - - @Sock socket:accept - -## Make A Connection - -To connect to a server using the socket: - - 'forth.works '70 socket:configure - @Sock socket:connect - -`socket:connect` will return a status code and an error code. - -## Writing To A Socket - -To write a string to a socket, use `socket:send`. This will -take a string and a socket handle and will return the number -of bytes sent and an error code. - - 'test @Sock socket:send - -## Reading From A Socket - -To read data from a socket pass an address, a maximum number of -bytes, and the socket handle to `socket:recv`. This will return -the number of bytes received and an error code. The bytes will -be stored in memory starting at the specified address. - - here #1024 @Sock socket:recv - -## Close a Socket - -To close a socket, pass the socket handle to `socket:close`. - - @Socket socket:close - -# Unix Scripting - -RETRO on Unix hosts is designed to play well with scripting. - -## Shebang - -To run an entire program directly, start the file with the -standard shebang and make the file executable: - - #!/usr/bin/env retro - -This requires the `retro` binary to be in your path. - -## Arguments - -RETRO provides several words in the `script:` namespace for accessing -command line arguments. - -The number of arguments can be accessed via `script:arguments`. This -will return a number with the arguments, other than the script -name. - - script:arguments '%n_arguments_passed\n s:format s:put - -To retreive an argument, pass the argument number to `script:get-argument`: - - script:arguments [ I script:get-argument s:put nl ] indexed-times - -And to get the name of the script, use `script:name`. - - script:name s:put - -## Mixing - -With use of the Unu literate format, it's possible to mix both -shell and RETRO code into a single script. As an example, this -is a bit of shell that runs itself via retro for each .retro -file in the current directory tree: - - #!/bin/sh - - # shell part - find . -name '*.retro' -print0 | xargs -0 -n 1 retro $0 - exit - - # retro part - - This will scan a source file and do something with it: - - ~~~ - ... do stuff ... - ~~~ - -# Working With Strings - -Strings in RETRO are NULL terminated sequences of values -representing characters. Being NULL terminated, they can't -contain a NULL (ASCII 0). - -The character words in RETRO are built around ASCII, but -strings can contain UTF8 encoded data if the host platform -allows. Words like `s:length` will return the number of bytes, -not the number of logical characters in this case. - -## Prefix - -Strings begin with a single `'`. - - 'Hello - 'This_is_a_string - 'This_is_a_much_longer_string_12345_67890_!!! - -RETRO will replace spaces with underscores. If you need both -spaces and underscores in a string, escape the underscores and -use `s:format`: - - 'This_has_spaces_and_under\_scored_words. s:format - -## Namespace - -Words operating on strings are in the `s:` namespace. - -## Lifetime - -At the interpreter, strings get allocated in a rotating buffer. -This is used by the words operating on strings, so if you need -to keep them around, use `s:keep` or `s:copy` to move them to -more permanent storage. - -In a definition, the string is compiled inline and so is in -permanent memory. - -You can manually manage the string lifetime by using `s:keep` -to place it into permanent memory or `s:temp` to copy it to -the rotating buffer. - -## Mutability - -Strings are mutable. If you need to ensure that a string is -not altered, make a copy before operating on it or see the -individual glossary entries for notes on words that may do -this automatically. - -## Searching - -RETRO provides four words for searching within a string. - -* `s:contains-char?` -* `s:contains-string?` -* `s:index-of` -* `s:index-of-string` - -## Comparisons - -* `s:eq?` -* `s:case` - -## Extraction - -To obtain a new string containing the first `n` characters from -a source string, use `s:left`: - - 'Hello_World #5 s:left - -To obtain a new string containing the last `n` characters from -a source string, use `s:right`: - - 'Hello_World #5 s:right - -If you need to extract data from the middle of the string, use -`s:substr`. This takes a string, the offset of the first -character, and the number of characters to extract. - - 'Hello_World #3 #5 s:substr - -## Joining - -You can use `s:append` or `s:prepend` to merge two strings. - - 'First 'Second s:append - 'Second 'First s:prepend - -## Tokenization - -* `s:tokenize` -* `s:tokenize-on-string` -* `s:split` -* `s:split-on-string` - -## Conversions - -To convert the case of a string, RETRO provides `s:to-lower` -and `s:to-upper`. - -`s:to-number` is provided to convert a string to an integer -value. This has a few limitations: - -- only supports decimal -- non-numeric characters will result in incorrect values - -## Cleanup - -RETRO provides a handful of words for cleaning up strings. - -`s:chop` will remove the last character from a string. This -is done by replacing it with an ASCII:NULL. - -`s:trim` removes leading and trailing whitespace from a string. -For more control, there is also `s:trim-left` and `s:trim-right` -which let you trim just the leading or trailing end as desired. - -## Combinators - -* `s:for-each` -* `s:filter` -* `s:map` - -## Other - -* `s:evaluate` -* `s:copy` -* `s:reverse` -* `s:hash` -* `s:length` -* `s:replace` -* `s:format` -* `s:empty` - -## Controlling The Temporary Buffers - -As dicussed in the Lifetime subsection, temporary strings are -allocated in a rotating buffer. The details of this can be -altered by updating two variables. - - | Variable | Holds | - | ------------- | ---------------------------------------- | - | TempStrings | The number of temporary strings | - | TempStringMax | The maximum length of a temporary string | - -For example, to increase the number of temporary strings to -48: - - #48 !TempStrings - -The defaults are: - - | Variable | Default | - | ------------- | ------- | - | TempStrings | 32 | - | TempStringMax | 512 | - -It's also important to note that altering these will affect -the memory map for all temporary buffers. Do not use anything -already in the buffers after updating these or you will risk -data corruption and possible crashes. - -# Using Combinators - -A combinator is a function that consumes functions as input. -They are used heavily by the RETRO system. - -## Types of Combinators - -Combinators are divided into three primary types: compositional, -execution flow, and data flow. - -## Compositional - -A compositional combinator takes elements from the stack and -returns a new quote. - -`curry` takes a value and a quote and returns a new quote -applying the specified quote to the specified value. As an -example, - -``` -:acc (n-) here swap , [ dup v:inc fetch ] curry ; -``` - -This would create an accumulator function, which takes an -initial value and returns a quote that will increase the -accumulator by 1 each time it is invoked. It will also return -the latest value. So: - -``` -#10 acc -dup call n:put -dup call n:put -dup call n:put -``` - -## Execution Flow - -Combinators of this type execute other functions. - -### Fundamental - -`call` takes a quote and executes it immediately. - -``` -[ #1 n:put ] call -&words call -``` - -### Conditionals - -RETRO provides three primary combinators for use with -conditional execution of quotes. These are `choose`, `if`, -and `-if`. - -`choose` takes a flag and two quotes from the stack. If the -flag is true, the first quote is executed. If false, the -second quote is executed. - -``` -#-1 [ 'true s:put ] [ 'false s:put ] choose - #0 [ 'true s:put ] [ 'false s:put ] choose -``` - -`if` takes a flag and one quote from the stack. If the flag is -true, the quote is executed. If false, the quote is discarded. - -``` -#-1 [ 'true s:put ] if - #0 [ 'true s:put ] if -``` - -`-if` takes a flag and one quote from the stack. If the flag is -false, the quote is executed. If true, the quote is discarded. - -``` -#-1 [ 'false s:put ] -if - #0 [ 'false s:put ] -if -``` - -RETRO also provides `case` and `s:case` for use when you have -multiple values to check against. This is similar to a `switch` -in C. - -`case` takes two numbers and a quote. The initial value is -compared to the second one. If they match, the quote is -executed. If false, the quote is discarded and the initial -value is left on the stack. - -Additionally, if the first value was matched, `case` will exit -the calling function, but if false, it returns to the calling -function. - -`s:case` works the same way, but for strings instead of simple -values. - -``` -:test (n-) - #1 [ 'Yes s:put ] case - #2 [ 'No s:put ] case - drop 'No idea s:put ; -``` - -### Looping - -Several combinators are available for handling various looping -constructs. - -`while` takes a quote from the stack and executes it repeatedly -as long as the quote returns a true flag on the stack. This flag -must be well formed and equal -1 or 0. - -``` -#10 [ dup n:put sp n:dec dup 0 -eq? ] while -``` - -`times` takes a count and quote from the stack. The quote will -be executed the number of times specified. No indexes are pushed -to the stack. - -``` -#1 #10 [ dup n:put sp n:inc ] times drop -``` - -There is also a `indexed-times` variation that provides -access to the loop index (via `I`) and parent loop indexes -(via `J` and `K`). - -``` -#10 [ I n:put sp ] indexed-times -``` - -## Data Flow - -These combinators exist to simplify stack usage in various -circumstances. - -### Preserving - -Preserving combinators execute code while preserving portions -of the data stack. - -`dip` takes a value and a quote, moves the value off the main -stack temporarily, executes the quote, and then restores the -value. - -``` -#10 #20 [ n:inc ] dip -``` - -Would yield the following on the stack: - -``` -11 20 -``` - -`sip` is similar to `dip`, but leaves a copy of the original -value on the stack during execution of the quote. So: - -``` -#10 [ n:inc ] sip -``` - -Leaves us with: - -``` -11 10 -``` - -### Cleave - -Cleave combinators apply multiple quotations to a single value -or set of values. - -`bi` takes a value and two quotes, it then applies each quote to -a copy of the value. - -``` -#100 [ n:inc ] [ n:dec ] bi -``` - -`tri` takes a value and three quotes. It then applies each quote -to a copy of the value. - -``` -#100 [ n:inc ] [ n:dec ] [ dup * ] tri -``` - -### Spread - -Spread combinators apply multiple quotations to multiple values. -The asterisk suffixed to these function names signifies that -they are spread combinators. - -`bi*` takes two values and two quotes. It applies the first -quote to the first value and the second quote to the second -value. - -``` -#1 #2 [ n:inc ] [ #2 * ] bi* -``` - -`tri*` takes three values and three quotes, applying the -first quote to the first value, the second quote to the -second value, and the third quote to the third value. - -``` -#1 #2 #3 [ n:inc ] [ #2 * ] [ n:dec ] tri* -``` - -### Apply - -Apply combinators apply a single quotation to multiple values. -The @ sign suffixed to these function names signifies that they -are apply combinators. - -`bi@` takes two values and a quote. It then applies the quote to -each value. - -``` -#1 #2 [ n:inc ] bi@ -``` - -`tri@` takes three values and a quote. It then applies the quote -to each value. - -``` -#1 #2 #3 [ n:inc ] tri@ -``` - -RETRO also provides `for-each` combinators for various data -structures. The exact usage of these varies; consult the -Glossary and relevant chapters for more details on these. - -# Word Classes - -Word classes are one of the two elements at the heart of -RETRO's interpreter. - -There are different types of words in a Forth system. At a -minimum there are data words, regular words, and immediate -words. There are numerous approaches to dealing with this. - -In RETRO I define special words which receive a pointer and -decide how to deal with it. These are grouped into a `class:` -namespace. - -## How It Works - -When a word is found in the dictionary, RETRO will push a -pointer to the definition (the `d:xt` field) to the stack -and then call the word specified by the `d:class` field. - -The word called is responsible for processing the pointer -passed to it. - -As a simple case, let's look at `immediate` words. These are -words which will always be called when encountered. A common -strategy is to have an immediacy bit which the interpreter -will look at, but RETRO uses a class for this. The class is -defined: - -``` -:class:immediate (a-) call ; -``` - -Or a normal word. These should be called at interpret time -or compiled into definitions. The handler for this can look -like: - -``` -:class:word (a-) compiling? [ compile:call ] [ call ] choose ; -``` - -## Using Classes - -The ability to add new classes is useful. If I wanted to add -a category of word that preserves an input value, I could do -it with a class: - -``` -:class:duplicating (a-) - compiling? [ &dup compile:call ] [ &dup dip ] choose - class:word ; - -:duplicating &class:duplicating reclass ; - -:. n:put nl ; duplicating -#100 . . . -``` - -# Checking The Version - -RETRO releases add and change things. You can use the `Version` -variable to determine the version in use and react accordingly. - -``` -@Version #201906 eq? [ 'Needs_2019.6! s:put nl bye ] if -``` - -This can be also be used to conditionally load compatibility files: - -``` -(If_newer_than_2016.6,_load_aliases_for_renamed_words) -@Version #201906 gt? [ 'Renamed_2019.6.forth include ] if -``` - -## Version Number Format - -The version is a six digit number encoding the year and month of -the release. So: - - 201901 is 2019.1 - 201906 is 2019.6 - 201911 is 2019.11 - -A `#100 /mod` will suffice to split these if needed. - -# Errors - -RETRO does only minimal error checking. - -## Non-Fatal - -A non-fatal error will be reported on *word not found* during -interactive or compile time. Note that this only applies to -calls: if you try to get a pointer to an undefined word, the -returned pointer will be zero. - -## Fatal - -A number of conditions are known to cause fatal errors. The -main ones are stack overflow, stack underflow, and division -by zero. - -On these, RETRO will generally exit. For stack depth issues, -the VM will attempt to display an error prior to exiting. - -In some cases, the VM may get stuck in an endless loop. If this -occurs, try using CTRL+C to kill the process, or kill it using -whatever means your host system provides. - -## Rationale - -Error checks are useful, but slow - especially on a minimal -system like RETRO. The overhead of doing depth or other checks -adds up quickly. - -As an example, adding a depth check to `drop` increases the -time to use it 250,000 times in a loop from 0.16 seconds to -1.69 seconds. - - -# Lexical Scope - -RETRO has a single dictionary, but does provide a means of using -lexical scope to keep this dictionary clean. - -## Example - -``` -{{ - 'A var - :++A &A v:inc ; ----reveal--- - :B ++A ++A @A n:put nl ; -}} -``` - -In this example, the lexical namespace is created with `{{`. A -variable (`A`) and word (`++A`) are defined. Then a marker is -set with `---reveal---`. Another word (`B`) is defined, and the -lexical area is closed with `}}`. - -The headers between `{{` and `---reveal---` are then hidden from -the dictionary, leaving only the headers between `---reveal---` -and `}}` exposed. - -## Notes - -This only affects word visibility within the scoped area. As an -example: - -``` -:a #1 ; - -{{ - :a #2 ; ----reveal--- - :b 'a s:evaluate n:put ; -}} -``` - -In this, after `}}` closes the area, the `:a #2 ;` is hidden and -the `s:evaluate` will find the `:a #1 ;` when `b` is run. - -# The Stacks - -The stacks are a defining feature of Forth. They are are used -to pass data between words and to track return addresses for -function calls. - -RETRO always has two stacks, and optionally (if built with -floating point support) a third. - -## Data Stack - -This is the primary stack. Values are placed here, passed to -words which consume them and then return results. When I -refer to "the stack", this is the one I mean. Learning to use -the stack is a crucial part to making effective use of RETRO. - -### Placing Values On The Stack - -Values can be placed on the stack directly. - - | Example | Action | - | -------------- | ---------------------------------------- | - | `#300123` | Push the number `300123` to the stack | - | `$h` | Push the ASCII code for `h` to the stack | - | `'hello_world` | Push a pointer to a string to the stack | - | `&fetch` | Push the address of `fetch` to the stack | - -### Reordering The Stack - -RETRO provides a number of *shufflers* for reordering items -on the stack. - -Some of the most common ones are: - - | Word | Before | After | - | ------- |--------- | -------- | - | dup | #1 | #1 #1 | - | drop | #1 #2 | #1 | - | swap | #1 #2 | #2 #1 | - | over | #1 #2 | #1 #2 #1 | - | tuck | #1 #2 | #2 #1 #2 | - | nip | #1 #2 | #2 | - | rot | #1 #2 #3 | #3 #1 #2 | - -You can use `push` and `pop` to move values to and from the -address stack. Make sure you `pop` them back before the word -ends or RETRO will crash. These two words can not be used -at the interpreter. - -There is also a special one, `reorder`, which allows for big -stack restructuring. This is slow but can be very useful. - -As an example, let's say we have four values: - - #1 #2 #3 #4 - -And we want them to become: - - #4 #3 #2 #1 - -Doing this with the basic shufflers is difficult. You could end -up with something similar to: - - swap rot push rot pop swap - -But with `reorder`, you can just express the before and after -states: - - 'abcd 'dcba reorder - -### Resetting The Stack - -If you need to quickly empty the stack, use `reset`. - -### Get The Stack Depth - -To find out how many items are on the stack, use `depth`. - -### Displaying The Stack - -You can display the stack by running `dump-stack`. - -### Data Flow Combinators - -RETRO provides *combinators* for working with data order on -the stack. These are covered in a later chapter and are worth -learning to use as they can help provide a cleaner, more -structured means of working. - -### Tips - -The stack is *not* an array in addressable memory. Don't try -to treat it like one. - -## Address Stack - -This stack primarily holds return addresses for function calls. -You normally won't need to directly interact with this stack, -but you can use `push` and `pop` to move values between the -data stack and this. - -## Floating Point Stack - -If you are using a build with floating point support a third -stack will be present. Floating point values are kept and -passed between words using this. - -See the Floating Point chapter for more details on this. - -## Tips - -I recommend keeping the data stack shallow. Don't try to juggle -too much; it's better to factor definitions into shorter ones -that deal with simpler parts of the stack values than to have -a big definition with a lot of complex shuffling. - -## Notes - -The standard system is configured with a very deep data stack -(around 2,000 items) and an address stack that is 3x deeper. -In actual use, your programs are unlikely to ever need this, -but if you do, keep the limits in mind. - -# Internals: Nga Virtual Machine - -## Overview - -At the heart of RETRO is a simple MISC (minimal instruction -set computer) processor for a dual stack architecture. - -This is a very simple and straightforward system. There are -30 instructions. The memory is a linear array of signed 32 -bit values. And there are two stacks: one for data and one -for return addresses. - -## Instruction Table - -| Opcode | Muri | Full Name | Data Stack | Address Stack | -| ------ | ---- | ------------------ | ---------- | ------------- | -| 0 | .. | nop | - | - | -| 1 | li | lit | -n | - | -| 2 | du | dup | n-nn | - | -| 3 | dr | drop | n- | - | -| 4 | sw | swap | xy-yx | - | -| 5 | pu | push | n- | -n | -| 6 | po | pop | -n | n- | -| 7 | ju | jump | a- | - | -| 8 | ca | call | a- | -A | -| 9 | cc | conditional call | af- | -A | -| 10 | re | return | - | A- | -| 11 | eq | equality | xy-f | - | -| 12 | ne | inequality | xy-f | - | -| 13 | lt | less than | xy-f | - | -| 14 | gt | greater than | xy-f | - | -| 15 | fe | fetch | a-n | - | -| 16 | st | store | na- | - | -| 17 | ad | addition | xy-n | - | -| 18 | su | subtraction | xy-n | - | -| 19 | mu | multiplication | xy-n | - | -| 20 | di | divide & remainder | xy-rq | - | -| 21 | an | bitwise and | xy-n | - | -| 22 | or | bitwise or | xy-n | - | -| 23 | xo | bitwise xor | xy-n | - | -| 24 | sh | shift | xy-n | - | -| 25 | zr | zero return | n-? | - | -| 26 | ha | halt | - | - | -| 27 | ie | i/o enumerate | -n | - | -| 28 | iq | i/o query | n-xy | - | -| 29 | ii | i/o invoke | ...n- | - | - -## Encoding - -Up to four instructions can be packed into each memory cell. - -As an example, - - Opcode 4 Opcode 3 Opcode 2 Opcode 1 - 00000000:00000000:00000000:00000000 - -If we have a bundle of `duliswst`, it would look like: - - st sw li du - 00010000:00000100:00000001:00000010 - -Each `li` should have a value in the following cell(s). These -values will be pushed to the stack. E.g., `lili....` and -1, 2: - - 00000000:00000000:00000001:00000001 - 00000000 00000000 00000000 00000001 (1) - 00000000 00000000 00000000 00000010 (2) - -## Shifts - -`sh` performs a bitwise arithmetic shift operation. - -This takes two values: - - xy - -And returns a single one: - - z - -If y is positive, this shifts `x` right by `y` bits. If negative, -it shifts left. - -## Queries: Memory, Stacks - -The `fe` instruction allows queries of some data related to -the Nga VM state. These are returned by reading from negative -addresses: - -| Address | Returns | -| ------- | ---------------------- | -| -1 | Data stack depth | -| -2 | Address stack depth | -| -3 | Maximum Image Size | -| -4 | Minimum Integer Value | -| -5 | Maximum Integer Value | - -## I/O Devices - -Nga provides three instructions for interacting with I/O devices. -These are: - - ie i/o enumerate returns the number of attached devices - iq i/o query returns information about a device - ii i/o interact invokes an interaction with a device - -As an example, with an implementation providing an output source, -a block storage system, and keyboard: - - ie will return `3` since there are three i/o devices - 0 iq will return 0 0, since the first device is a screen (0) - with a version of 0 - 1 iq will return 1 3, since the second device is a block - storage (3), with a version of 1 - 2 iq will return 0 1, since the third device is a keyboard - (1), with a version of 0 - -In this case, some interactions can be defined: - - : c:put - i liiire.. - d 0 - - : c:get - i liiire.. - d 2 - -Setup the stack, push the device ID to the stack, and then use -`ii` to invoke the interaction. - -A RETRO system requires one I/O device (a generic output for a -single character). This must be the first device, and must have -a device ID of 0. - -All other devices are optional and can be specified in any order. - -The currently supported and reserved device identifiers are: - -| ID | Device Type | Notes | -| ---- | ---------------- | -------------------------- | -| 0000 | Generic Output | Always present as device 0 | -| 0001 | Keyboard | | -| 0002 | Floating Point | | -| 0003 | Block Storage | Raw, 1024 cell blocks | -| 0004 | Filesystem | Unix-style Files | -| 0005 | Network: Gopher | Make gopher requests | -| 0006 | Network: HTTP | Make HTTP requests | -| 0007 | Network: Sockets | | -| 0008 | Syscalls: Unix | | -| 0009 | Scripting Hooks | | -| 0010 | Random Number | | - -This list may be revised in the future. The only guaranteed -stable indentifier is 0000 for generic output. - -# Internals: Interface Layers - -Nga provides a virtual processor and an extensible way of adding -I/O devices, but does not provide any I/O itself. Adding I/O is -the responsability of the *interface layer*. - -An interface layer will wrap Nga, providing at least one I/O -device (a generic output target), and a means of interacting -with the *retro image*. - -It's expected that this layer will be host specific, adding any -system interactions that are needed via the I/O instructions. -The image will typically be extended with words to use these. - - - -# Internals: I/O - -RETRO provides three words for interacting with I/O. These are: - - io:enumerate returns the number of attached devices - io:query returns information about a device - io:invoke invokes an interaction with a device - -As an example, with an implementation providing an output source, -a block storage system, and keyboard: - - io:enumerate will return `3` since there are three - i/o devices - #0 io:query will return 0 0, since the first device - is a screen (type 0) with a version of 0 - #1 io:query will return 1 3, since the second device is - block storage (type 3), with a version of 1 - #2 io:query will return 0 1, since the last device is a - keyboard (type 1), with a version of 0 - -In this case, some interactions can be defined: - - :c:put #0 io:invoke ; - :c:get #2 io:invoke ; - -Setup the stack, push the device ID, and then use `io:invoke` -to invoke the interaction. - -A RETRO system requires one I/O device (a generic output for a -single character). This must be the first device, and must have -a device ID of 0. - -All other devices are optional and can be specified in any -order. - - -# Internals: The Retro Image - -The actual RETRO language is stored as a memory image for Nga. - -## Format - -The image file is a flat, linear sequence of signed 32-bit -values. Each value is stored in little endian format. The -size is not fixed. An interface should check when loading to -ensure that the physical image is not larger than the emulated -memory. - -## Header - -The image will start with two cells. The first is a liju.... -instruction, the second is the target address for the jump. -This serves to skip over the rest of the data and reach the -actual entry point. - -This is followed by a pointer to the most recent dictionary -header, a pointer to the next free address in memory, and -then the RETRO version number. - - | Offset | Contains | - | ------ | --------------------------- | - | 0 | lit call nop nop | - | 1 | Pointer to main entry point | - | 2 | Dictionary | - | 3 | Heap | - | 4 | RETRO version | - -The actual code starts after this header. - -The version number is the year and month. As an example, -the 12.2019.6 release will have a version number of -`201906`. - -## Layout - -Assuming an Nga built with 524287 cells of memory: - - | RANGE | CONTAINS | - | --------------- | ---------------------------- | - | 0 - 1024 | rx kernel | - | 1025 - 1535 | token input buffer | - | 1536 + | start of heap space | - | ............... | free memory for your use | - | 506879 | buffer for string evaluate | - | 507904 | temporary strings (32 * 512) | - | 524287 | end of memory | - -The buffers at the end of memory will resize when specific -variables related to them are altered. - -# Historical Papers and Notes - -## On the Naming of RETRO - -Taken from http://lists.tunes.org/archives/tunes-lll/1999-July/000121.html - -On Fri, Jul 30, 1999 at 07:43:54PM -0400, Paul Dufresne wrote: - -> My brother did found it funny that Retro is called like that. -> For him retro means going back (generally in time) so this -> does not looks like a name of a OS to come. So he'd like to -> know from where the name came. - -Heheh, here's the story: When I started playing with OS stuff -last year (not seriously), I was reading about some old things -like FORTH and ITS, dating back to the 1960's and 70's. The -past few years in America, there's been a revival of disco -music (along with bell bottoms, platform shoes, and all that -crap) and they call it "retro". Now, my OS was named by -musicians.. I was telling a fellow musician about my ideas, -how it would be cool to have a small OS that isn't bloated and -unmanageable like Windows... go back to the 70's and resurrect -a line of software that died out. He goes "hmm.. sounds kinda -retro.." - -I think it sounds kinda rebellious, which is a Good Thing now -that everybody hates the M$ empire. :) It seems like other -people are as sick of the future as I am. Look at TUNES, the -idea there isn't to make some great new invention, just take -some decades-old ideas and combine them in one OS. The first -time I saw Knuth's "Art of Computer Programming" in the library -I thought "god that looks old.. 1973!!! nevermind.." Now it's -my programming bible. Find me something better published in -the 90's.. if such a thing exists, it'll be like a needle in a -haystack. "Newer" doesn't necessarily mean "better". - - New cars = flimsier - New farming methods = more devastating - New version of Netscape = more bloat, more bullshit - -One thing is better now: computer hardware. Give me 70's -software on 90's and 00's hardware :) - -- Tom Novelli - - -## The Design Philosophy of RETRO Native Forth - -Computer software is a technology in its infancy, a mere fifty years -old. The last 25 years in particular have seen an explosion in the -software business. However, software has seen little innovation while -hardware technology has improved phenomenally (notwithstanding the advent -of lousy slave-made parts). Proven software techniques of forty years ago -have yet to reach widespread use, in deference to the "latest and -greatest" proprietary solutions of dubious value. Thanks to agressive -marketing, we make huge investments in these dead-end technologies -(through our businesses and governments, if not personally) and we end up -with a reliance on a heap of complicated, error-prone, poorly understood -junk software. - -Complexity will dominate the software industry for the foreseeable -future. The Retro philosophy is a simple alternative for those willing to -make a clean break with legacy software. A Retro system can communicate -with other systems, but it won't run much legacy software, especially -proprietary software without source code. An emulation layer could be -added, but doing so would defeat the purpose of a simple operating system. -I think TCP/IP support is all the compatibility that's needed. - -At first Retro will appeal to computer hobbyists and electronic -engineers. Once the rough edges are smoothed out, it could catch on with -ordinary folks who don't like waiting five minutes just to check their -email (not to mention the long hours of setup and maintenance). Game -programmers who take their craft seriously may also be interested. -Businesses might even see a use for it, if the managers decide it's more -cost-effective to carefully design software for specific needs, rather -than buying off-the-shelf crap and spending countless manhours working -around the bugs. Since it's not practical for businesses to make a clean -break, my advice is to run Retro (and its ilk) on separate machines -connected by a network. Retro is efficient enough to run on older -machines that would otherwise sit idle, being too slow for the latest -Microsoft bloatware (or Linux, for that matter). - -I strive to avoid the extraneous. That applies even to proven -technologies, if I don't need them. If my computer isn't set up for -people to log in over the network, I don't want security features; they -just get in the way. If I'm only running programs I wrote, I should be -able to run them with full access to the hardware; I don't need protection -from viruses. If I download something I don't trust, then I can run it in -an isolated process, which is customary with Unix and kin. But that's not -core functionality. All that's needed is the flexibility to add things -like security, graphical interfaces, and distributed processing - if the -need ever arises. - -In programming languagues, I was misled. It's the Tower of Babel all -over again. The thousands of languages in existence all fall into a -handful of archetypes: Assembler, LISP, FORTRAN and FORTH represent the -earliest descendants of nearly all languages. I hesitate to name a -definitive "object-oriented" language, and here's why: Object-Oriented -programming is just a technique, and any language will suffice, even -Assembler. The complexites of fancy languages like Ada and C++ are a -departure from reality -- the reality of the actual physical machine. -When it all boils down, even LISP, FORTRAN and FORTH are only extensions -of the machine. - -I chose FORTH as the "native tongue" of Retro. LISP, FORTRAN, and -other languages can be efficiently implemented as extensions of FORTH, but -the reverse isn't so efficient. Theoretically all languages are -equivalent, but when design time, compilation time, and complexity are -accounted for, FORTH is most efficient. FORTH also translates most -directly to the hardware. (In fact, FORTH has been implemented in -hardware; these "stack machines" are extremely efficient.) FORTH is also -the easiest language to implement from scratch - a major concern when -you're trying to make a clean break. So with simplicity in mind, FORTH -was the obvious choice. - -I'm perfectly happy working with text only, and I go to great lengths -to avoid using the standard graphical environments, which have major -problems: windows, pulldown menus, and mice. Windows can't share the -screen nicely; that idea is hopeless. Pulldowns are tedious. Mice get in -the way of typing without reducing the need for it; all they give me is -tendonitis. Their main use is for drawing. - -Some of my favorite interfaces: Telix, Telegard BBS, Pine, Pico, Lynx, -and ScreamTracker. All "hotkey" interfaces where you press a key or two -to perform an action. Usually the important commands are listed at the -bottom of the screen, or at least on a help screen. The same principles -apply to graphical interfaces: use the full screen, except for a status -and menu area on one edge. Resist the temptation to clutter up the -screen. - -As for switching between programs, the Windows methods suck; the only -thing worse is Unix job control (jobs, fg, and such). The Linux method is -tolerable: Alt-Arrows, Alt-F1, Alt-F2, etc. Still, things could be -better: F11 and F12 cycle back and forth through all open programs; Alt-F1 -assigns the currently selected program to F1, and likewise for the other -function keys. Programs just won't use function keys - Control and Alt -combinations are less awkward and easier to remember, besides. I'll also -want a "last channel" key and a "task list" key; maybe I'll borrow those -stupid Win95 keys. The Pause key will do like it says - pause the current -program - and Ctrl-Pause (Break) will kill it. - -One more thing: consistency. I like programs to look different so I -can tell them apart, but the keys should be the same as much as possible. -Keys should be configured in one place, for all programs. Finally, -remember the most consistent interface, one of the few constants -throughout the history of computing - the text screen and keyboard, and -the teletypewriter before that. Don't overlook it. - -More to come, maybe... :) - -"If it's on line, it's a work in progress." - -Tom Novelli, 3/4/2000 - -## Metacompilation and Assembly - -RETRO 10 and 11 were written in themselves using a metacompiler. -I had been fascinated by this idea for a long time and was able -to explore it heavily. While I still find it to be a good idea, -the way I ended up doing it was problematic. - -The biggest issue I faced was that I wanted to do this in one -step, where loading the RETRO source would create a new image -in place of the old one, switch to the new one, and then load -the higher level parts of the language over this. In retrospect, -this was a really bad idea. - -My earlier design for RETRO was very flexible. I allowed almost -everything to be swapped out or extended at any time. This made -it extremely easy to customize the language and environment, but -made it crucial to keep track of what was in memory and what had -been patched so that the metacompiler wouldn't refer to anything -in the old image during the relocation and control change. It -was far too easy to make a mistake, discover that elements of -the new image were broken, and then have to go and revert many -changes to try to figure out what went wrong. - -This was also complicated by the fact that I built new images -as I worked, and, while a new image could be built from the last -built one, it wasn't always possible to build a new image from -the prior release version. (Actually, it was often worse - I -failed to check in every change as I went, so often even the -prior commits couldn't rebuild the latest images). - -For RETRO 12 I wanted to avoid this problem, so I decided to go -back to writing the kernel ("Rx") in assembly. I actually wrote -a Machine Forth dialect to generate the initial assembly, before -eventually hand tuning the final results to its current state. - -I could (and likely will eventually) write the assembler in -RETRO, but the current one is in C, and is built as part of the -standard toolchain. - -My VM actually has two assemblers. The older one is Naje. This -was intended to be fairly friendly to work with, and handles -many of the details of packing instructions for the user. Here -is an example of a small program in it: - - :square - dup - mul - ret - :main - lit 35 - lit &square - call - end - -The other assembler is Muri. This is a far more minimalistic -assembler, but I've actually grown to prefer it. The above -example in Muri would become: - - i liju.... - r main - : square - i dumure.. - : main - i lilica.. - d 35 - r square - i en...... - -In Muri, each instruction is reduced to two characters, and the -bundlings are listed as part of an instruction bundle (lines -starting with `i`). This is less readable if you aren't very -familiar with Nga's assembly and packing rules, but allows a -very quick, efficient way of writing assembly for those who are. - -I eventually rewrote the kernel in the Muri style as it's what -I prefer, and since there's not much need to make changes in it. - -## The Path to Self Hosting - -RETRO is an image based Forth system running on a lightweight -virtual machine. This is the story of how that image is made. - -The first RETRO to use an image based approach was RETRO 10. -The earliest images were built using a compiler written in -Toka, an earlier experimental stack language I had written. -It didn't take long to want to drop the dependency on Toka, -so I rewrote the image compiler in RETRO and then began -development at a faster pace. - -RETRO 11 was built using the last RETRO 10 image and an -evolved version of the metacompiler. This worked well, but -I eventually found it to be problematic. - -One of the issues I faced was the inability to make a new -image from the prior stable release. Since I develop and -test changes incrementally, I reached a point where the -current metacompiler and image required each other. This -wasn't a fatal flaw, but it was annoying. - -Perhaps more critical was the fragility of the system. In -R11 small mistakes could result in a corrupt image. The test -suite helped identify some of these, but there were a few -times I was forced to dig back through the version control -history to recover a working image. - -The fragile nature was amplified by some design decisions. -In R11, after the initial kernel was built, it would be -moved to memory address 0, then control would jump into the -new kernel to finish building the higher level parts. - -Handling this was a tricky task. In R11 almost everything -could be revectored, so the metacompiler had to ensure that -it didn't rely on anything in the old image during the move. -This caused a large number of issues over R11's life. - -So on to RETRO 12. I decided that this would be different. -First, the kernel would be assembly, with an external tool -to generate the core image. The kernel is in `Rx.md` and the -assembler is `Muri`. To load the standard library, I wrote a -second tool, `retro-extend`. This separation has allowed me -many fewer headaches as I can make changes more easily and -rebuild from scratch when necessary. - -But I miss self-hosting. So last fall I decided to resolve -this. And today I'm pleased to say that it is now done. - -There are a few parts to this. - -**Unu**. I use a Markdown variation with fenced code blocks. -The tool I wrote in C to extract these is called `unu`. For -a self hosting RETRO, I rewrote this as a combinator that -reads in a file and runs another word against each line in the -file. So I could display the code block contents by doing: - - 'filename [ s:put nl ] unu - -This made it easier to implement the other tools. - -**Muri**. This is my assembler. It's minimalistic, fast, and -works really well for my purposes. RETRO includes a runtime -version of this (using `as{`, `}as`, `i`, `d`, and `r`), so -all I needed for this was to write a few words to parse the -lines and run the corresponding runtime words. As with the C -version, this is a two pass assembler. - -Muri generates a new `ngaImage` with the kernel. To create a -full image I needed a way to load in the standard library and -I/O extensions. - -This is handled by **retro-extend**. This is where it gets -more complex. I implemented the Nga virtual machine in RETRO -to allow this to run the new image in isolation from the -host image. The new ngaImage is loaded, the interpreter is -located, and each token is passed to the interpreter. Once -done, the new image is written to disk. - -So at this point I'm pleased to say that I can now develop -RETRO using only an existing copy of RETRO (VM+image) and -tools (unu, muri, retro-extend, and a line oriented text -editor) written in RETRO. - -This project has delivered some additional side benefits. -During the testing I was able to use it to identify a few -bugs in the I/O extensions, and the Nga-in-RETRO will replace -the older attempt at this in the debugger, allowing a safer -testing environment. - -What issues remain? - -The extend process is *slow*. On my main development server -(Linode 1024, OpenBSD 6.4, 64-bit) it takes a bit over five -minutes to complete loading the standard library, and a few -additional depending on the I/O drivers selected. - -Most of the performance issues come from running Nga-in-RETRO -to isolate the new image from the host one. It'd be possible -to do something a bit more clever (e.g., running a RETRO -instance using the new image via a subprocess and piping in -the source, or doing relocations of the data), but this is -less error prone and will work on all systems that I plan to -support (including, with a few minor adjustments, the native -hardware versions [assuming the existance of mass storage]). - -Sources: - -**Unu** - -- http://forth.works/c8820f85e0c52d32c7f9f64c28f435c0 -- gopher://forth.works/0/c8820f85e0c52d32c7f9f64c28f435c0 - -**Muri** - -- http://forth.works/09d6c4f3f8ab484a31107dca780058e3 -- gopher://forth.works/0/09d6c4f3f8ab484a31107dca780058e3 - -**retro-extend** - -- http://forth.works/c812416f397af11db58e97388a3238f2 -- gopher://forth.works/0/c812416f397af11db58e97388a3238f2 - -## Prefixes as a Language Element - -A big change in RETRO 12 was the elimination of the traditional -parser from the language. This was a sacrifice due to the lack -of an I/O model. RETRO has no way to know *how* input is given -to the `interpret` word, or whether anything else will ever be -passed into it. - -And so `interpret` operates only on the current token. The core -language does not track what came before or attempt to guess at -what might come in the future. - -This leads into the prefixes. RETRO 11 had a complicated system -for prefixes, with different types of prefixes for words that -parsed ahead (e.g., strings) and words that operated on the -current token (e.g., `@`). RETRO 12 eliminates all of these in -favor of just having a single prefix model. - -The first thing `interpret` does is look to see if the first -character in a token matches a `prefix:` word. If it does, it -passes the rest of the token as a string pointer to the prefix -specific handler to deal with. If there is no valid prefix -found, it tries to find it in the dictionary. Assuming that it -finds the words, it passes the `d:xt` field to the handler that -`d:class` points to. Otherwise it calls `err:notfound`. - -This has an important implication: *words can not reliably -have names that start with a prefix character.* - -It also simplifies things. Anything that would normally parse -becomes a prefix handler. So creating a new word? Use the `:` -prefix. Strings? Use `'`. Pointers? Try `&`. And so on. E.g., - - In ANS | In RETRO - : foo ... ; | :foo ... ; - ' foo | &foo - : bar ... ['] foo ; | :bar ... &foo ; - s" hello world!" | 'hello_world! - -If you are familiar with ColorForth, prefixes are a similar -idea to colors, but can be defined by the user as normal words. - -After doing this for quite a while I rather like it. I can see -why Chuck Moore eventually went towards ColorForth as using -color (or prefixes in my case) does simplify the implementation -in many ways. - -## On The Kernel Wordset - -In implementing the RETRO 12 kernel (called Rx) I had to decide -on what functionality would be needed. It was important to me -that this be kept clean and minimalistic, as I didn't want to -spend a lot of time changing it as time progressed. It's far -nicer to code at the higher level, where the RETRO language is -functional, as opposed to writing more assembly code. - -So what made it in? - -Primitives - -These are words that map directly to Nga instructions. - - dup drop swap call eq? -eq? lt? gt? - fetch store + - * /mod and or - xor shift push pop 0; - -Memory - - fetch-next store-next , s, - -Strings - - s:to-number s:eq? s:length - -Flow Control - - choose if -if repeat again - -Compiler & Interpreter - - Compiler Heap ; [ ] Dictionary - d:link d:class d:xt d:name d:add-header - class:word class:primitive class:data class:macro - prefix:: prefix:# prefix:& prefix:$ - interpret d:lookup err:notfound - -Assembler - - i d r - -I *could* slightly reduce this. The $ prefix could be defined in -higher level code, and I don't strictly *need* to expose the -`fetch-next` and `store-next` here. But since the are already -implemented as dependencies of the words in the kernel, it would -be a bit wasteful to redefine them later in higher level code. - -A recent change was the addition of the assembler into the -kernel. This allows the higher levels to use assembly as needed, -which gives more flexibility and allows for more optimal code -in the standard library. - -With these words the rest of the language can be built up. Note -that the Rx kernel does not provide any I/O words. It's assumed -that the RETRO interfaces will add these as best suited for the -systems they run on. - -There is another small bit. All images start with a few key -pointers in fixed offsets of memory. These are: - - | Offset | Contains | - | ------ | --------------------------- | - | 0 | lit call nop nop | - | 1 | Pointer to main entry point | - | 2 | Dictionary | - | 3 | Heap | - | 4 | RETRO version identifier | - -An interface can use the dictionary pointer and knowledge of the -dictionary format for a specific RETRO version to identify the -location of essential words like `interpret` and `err:notfound` -when implementing the user facing interface. - -## On The Evolution Of Ngaro Into Nga - -When I decided to begin work on what became RETRO 12, I knew -the process would involve updating Ngaro, the virtual machine -that RETRO 10 and 11 ran on. - -Ngaro rose out of an earlier experimental virtual machine I had -written back in 2005-2006. This earlier VM, called Maunga, was -very close to what Ngaro ended up being, though it had a very -different approach to I/O. (All I/O in Maunga was intended to be -memory mapped; Ngaro adopted a port based I/O system). - -Ngaro itself evolved along with RETRO, gaining features like -automated skipping of NOPs and a LOOP opcode to help improve -performance. But the I/O model proved to be a problem. When I -created Ngaro, I had the idea that I would always be able to -assume a console/terminal style environment. The assumption was -that all code would be entered via the keyboard (or maybe a -block editor), and that proved to be the fundamental flaw as -time went on. - -As RETRO grew it was evident that the model had some serious -problems. Need to load code from a file? The VM and language had -functionality to pretend it was being typed in. Want to run on -something like a browser, Android, or iOS? The VM would need to -be implemented in a way that simulates input being typed into -the VM via a simulated keyboard. And RETRO was built around this. -I couldn't change it because of a promise to maintain, as much -as possible, source compatibility for a period of at least five -years. - -When the time came to fix this, I decided at the start to keep -the I/O model separate from the core VM. I also decided that the -core RETRO language would provide some means of interpreting -code without requiring an assumption that a traditional terminal -was being used. - -So Nga began. I took the opportunity to simplify the instruction -set to just 26 essential instructions, add support for packing -multiple instructions per memory location (allowing a long due -reduction in memory footprint), and to generally just make a far -simpler design. - -I've been pleased with Nga. On its own it really isn't useful -though. So with RETRO I embed it into a larger framework that -adds some basic I/O functionality. The *interfaces* handle the -details of passing tokens into the language and capturing any -output. They are free to do this in whatever model makes most -sense on a given platform. - -So far I've implemented: - - - a scripting interface, reading input from a file and - offering file i/o, gopher, and reading from stdin, and - sending output to stdout. - - an interactive interface, built around ncurses, reading - input from stdin, and displaying output to a scrolling - buffer. - - an iOS interface, built around a text editor, directing - output to a separate interface pane. - - an interactive block editor, using a gopher-based block - data store. Output is displayed to stdout, and input is - done via the blocks being evaluated or by reading from - stdin. - -In all cases, the only common I/O word that has to map to an -exposed instruction is `putc`, to display a single character to -some output device. There is no requirement for a traditional -keyboard input model. - -By doing this I was able to solve the biggest portability issue -with the RETRO 10/11 model, and make a much simpler, cleaner -language in the end. - -## RETRO 11 (2011 - 2019): A Look Back - -So it's now been about five years since the last release of RETRO -11. While I still see some people obtaining and using it, I've -moved on to the twelth generation of RETRO. It's time for me to -finally retire RETRO 11. - -As I prepare to do so, I thought I'd take a brief look back. - -RETRO 11 began life in 2011. It grew out of RETRO 10, which was -the first version of RETRO to not be written in x86 assembly -language. For R10 and R11, I wrote a portable virtual machine -(with numerous implementations) and the Forth dialect was kept -in an image file which ran on the VM. - -RETRO 10 worked, but was always a bit too sloppy and changed -drastically between releases. The major goal of RETRO 11 was to -provide a stable base for a five year period. In retrospect, -this was mostly achieved. Code from earlier releases normally -needed only minor adjustments to run on later releases, though -newer releases added significantly to the language. - -There were seven releases. - -- Release 11.0: 2011, July -- Release 11.1: 2011, November -- Release 11.2: 2012, January -- Release 11.3: 2012, March -- Release 11.4: 2012, July -- Release 11.5: 2013, March -- Release 11.6: 2014, August - -Development was fast until 11.4. This was the point at which I -had to slow down due to RSI problems. It was also the point -which I started experiencing some problems with the metacompiler -(as discussed previously). - -RETRO 11 was flexible. All colon definitions were setup as hooks, -allowing new functionality to be layered in easily. This allowed -the later releases to add things like vocabularies, search order, -tab completion, and keyboard remapping. This all came at a cost -though: later things could use the hooks to alter behavior of -existing words, so it was necessary to use a lot of caution to -ensure that the layers didn't break the earlier code. - -The biggest issue was the I/O model. RETRO 11 and the Ngaro VM -assumed the existence of a console environment. All input was -required to be input at the keyboard, and all output was to be -shown on screen. This caused some problems. Including code from -a file required some tricks, temporarily rewriting the keyboard -input function to read from the file. It also became a major -issue when I wrote the iOS version. The need to simulate the -keyboard and console complicated everything and I had to spend -a considerable amount of effort to deal with battery performance -resulting from the I/O polling and wait states. - -But on the whole it worked well. I used RETRO 11.6 until I started -work on RETRO 12 in late 2016, and continued running some tools -written in R11 until the first quarter of last year. - -The final image file was 23,137 cells (92,548 bytes). This was -bloated by keeping some documentation (stack comments and short -descriptions) in the image, which started in 11.4. This contained -269 words. - -I used RETRO 11 for a wide variety of tasks. A small selection of -things that were written includes: - -- a pastebin -- front end to ii (irc client) -- small explorations of interactive fiction -- irc log viewer -- tool to create html from templates -- tool to automate creation of an SVCD from a set of photos -- tools to generate reports from data sets for my employer - -In the end, I'm happy with how RETRO 11 turned out. I made some -mistakes in embracing too much complexity, but despite this it -was a successful system for many years. - -# Security Concerns - -The standard RETRO is not a good choice for applications -needing to be highly secure. - -## Runtime Checks - -The RETRO system performs only minimal checks. It will not -load an image larger than the max set at build time. And -stack over/underflow are checked for as code executes. - -The system does not attempt to validate anything else, it's -quite easy to crash. - -## Isolation - -The VM itself and the core code is self contained. Nga does -not make use of malloc/free, and uses only standard system -libraries. It's possible for buffer overruns within the image -(overwriting Nga code), but the RETRO image shouldn't leak -into the C portions. - -I/O presents a bigger issue. Anything involving I/O, especially -with the `unix:` words, may be a vector for attacks. - -## Future Direction - -I'm not planning to add anything to the *image* side as, for me, -the performance hit due to added checks is bigger than the -benefits. - -The story is different on the VM side. I've already begun taking -steps to address some of the issues, using functions that check -for overruns with strings and doing some minor testing for these -conditions. I will be gradually addressing the various I/O -related extensions, though it's unlikely to ever be fully guarded -against attacks. - -## Rationale - -RETRO is, primarily, a personal system. I'm running code I wrote -to solve problems I face. On the occasions where I run code sent -to me by others, I read it carefully first and then run inside a -sandboxed environment if I'm worried about anything in it. - -### On The Use Of Underscores In Word Names - -In brief: don't use underscores in word names. - -There is a good reason for this, and it has to do with how RETRO -processes strings. By default, underscores in strings are replaced -by spaces. This is problematic when dealing with words like `var`, -`const`, and `d:create` which take word names as strings. - -Consider: - - :hello_msg 'hello_user ; - 'test_name var - #188 !test_name - -In the first case, the `:` prefix handles the token, so the -underscore is not remapped to a space, creating a word name as -`hello_msg`. But in the second, the `'` prefix remaps the -underscore to a space, giving a variable name of `test name`. -In the third line, the name lookup will fail as `test_name` is -not defined, so the store will be done to an incorrect address. - -Because of this, it's best to avoid underscores in names. - -Having covered this, if you do need to use them for some reason, -you can replace `d:add-header` with a version that remaps spaces -back to underscores before creating the header. The following -will allow for this. - - ~~~ - {{ - :fields @Dictionary , (link) , (xt) , (class) ; - :invalid-name? dup ASCII:SPACE s:contains-char? ; - :rewrite [ ASCII:SPACE [ $_ ] case ] s:map ; - :entry here &call dip !Dictionary ; - [ [ fields invalid-name? &rewrite if s, (name) ] entry ] - }} - - #1793 &d:add-header store - &d:add-header n:inc store - ~~~ - -Additional Note: - -Some version of RETRO have included the above patch. The last -release that will include this by default is 2020.4 as it is -not needed by the majority of users. If you want to keep it in -your system, you will need to load it yourself or add it to -your `package/list.forth` (for Unix users) before building. - -# The Code It Yourself Manifesto - -We use software for our everyday needs because we want to get -something done. We have goals to achieve and things to do. - -The software we use is coded by brave programmers that have -their own goals. Most of the time there is an overlap between -their goals and ours. - -Over time these will diverge. - -This means that the tools we depend on grow features we don't -use or understand. There will be bugs in these code parts which -will prevent us from reaching our goals. - -So we are at a fork in the road: - -- We have the choice of trying to understand the code and - fix it. -- We have the choice of trying another program, whose - creator's goals are closer to ours. -- We also have the choice of coding the software ourself. - -All but the last path mean endless seeking, evaluating and -further deviation from our goals. Therefore we replace programs -we do not understand fully with our own implementation. - -The followers of the Code It Yourself Manifesto believe in -these things: - -- We implement it according to our own goals. -- We make mistakes and learn from them. -- We learn how our tools we depend on need to work. -- We gain a deep understanding of our problem domain. -- We still embrace sharing of ideas and code. - -Sharing is only possible if we are excellent developers to -each other. The next developer reading our code will be us -in a not so distant future. Coding It Ourselves means we will -document our code, clearly stating the goal of the software -we write. - -Together we enjoy the diversity of implementations and ideas. - -We encourage our colleagues to - -**Code It Yourself.** - ----- - -Written by Christian Kellermann on 2016-01-12, licensed under -a CreativeCommonsAttribution-ShareAlike3.0UnportedLicense. - -Original text taken from -http://pestilenz.org/~ckeen/blog/posts/ciy-manifesto.html - -# Deprecation Policy - -As RETRO evolves, some words will become obsolete and no longer -be needed. In each release, these will be marked as deprecated -in the glossary. Any deprecated words will be removed in the -next quarterly release. - -E.g., if 2020.1 had deprecated words, these would be removed in -the 2020.4 release. Any words made deprecated in between 2020.1 -and 2020.4 would be removed in the 2020.7 release. - diff --git a/security/2021-01.pub b/security/2021-01.pub new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4dab65c --- /dev/null +++ b/security/2021-01.pub @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +untrusted comment: key for 2021.01 release public key +RWQI2enKp9fDQQOB18v1zShIojns07h/Bz3ULF2u2aOlrU37t4uxYnAU diff --git a/security/2021-02.pub b/security/2021-02.pub new file mode 100644 index 0000000..641f52c --- /dev/null +++ b/security/2021-02.pub @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +untrusted comment: key for 2021.02 release public key +RWTZgck/enamBlRDOA1z1V0yEDJ3fk4RxUayQuZP6dhuhG5euZjLsw4V diff --git a/security/2021-03.pub b/security/2021-03.pub new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a0a36e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/security/2021-03.pub @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +untrusted comment: key for 2021.03 release public key +RWQlHLaDnNspeQ//1Sn8K6hqk5LF28JYkA9zZShm/vTm7Q4sJyt+EkL4 diff --git a/security/2021-04.pub b/security/2021-04.pub new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bfa1010 --- /dev/null +++ b/security/2021-04.pub @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +untrusted comment: key for 2021.04 release public key +RWTVXsj18VzrzcF7enKiLPj6+BBUtfQezCFeFnOvx9i5FVmSSmmLNjHa